Terpenes

Myrcene

Myrcene is the most abundant terpene in cannabis, making up as much as 65% of the total terpene profile in some strains. Strains with high content of myrcene are usually indicas, offering both sedative and anxiolytic effects. Myrcene has also been reported to be useful in reducing inflammation and chronic pain. 

 

Links to other Pertinent Educational Pages:

Links to ALL Marijuana Educational Pages

 

Terpenes:

Terpenes – An Overview

 

Terpenes: Therapeutic Benefits

 

Individual Terpenes:

 

 

The medical information on this site is provided as a resource for information only, and is not to be used or relied upon for any diagnostic or treatment purposes and is not intended to create any patient-physician relationship.  Readers are advised to seek professional guidance regarding the diagnosis and treatment of their medical concerns.

 

 

Key to Links:

 

This page is incomplete but will be developed further soon…

Terpenes – Brief Overview

Terpenes are mostly responsible for the aroma of cannabis but they are also responsible for many of the therapeutic benefits of different cannabis strains, especially in combination with the cannabinoids THC and CBD. Terpenes are quite potent when inhaled from ambient air and have been shown to affect human behavior at serum levels less than 10 ng/ml. In fact, although terpenes account for less than 1% in most cannabis plants, terpenes in concentrations above 0.05% are considered potentially pharmacological active.

See: Types of Terpenes and Terpenoids

 

 

Myrcene

Myrcene is the most abundant terpene in cannabis, making up as much as 65% of total terpene profile in some strains. It is pleasant-smelling and has been described as having an earthy, musky aroma, similar to cloves and also as having a fruity, red grape-like aroma. Myrcene is largely responsible for the “green hop aroma” in beer.  Myrcene can also be found in hops and foods such as mango and citrus fruits, as well as thyme, sweet basil, bay leaves, parsley and lemongrass.

 

Myrcene has been reported to be an antioxidant as well as useful in reducing inflammation, anxiety and chronic pain. Myrcene is a recognized sedative, potentiating sleep at high doses and is employed as a sleep aid  in Germany.  If the level of myrcene in marijuana strains/products is >0.5% it may result in a “couch lock,” or heavy sedative effect, while low levels of myrcene (<0.5%) are likely to induce a more energetic “high.”

 

Boiling Point of Myrcene: 334• (F), 167• (C)

When vaping a cannabis strain with myrcene one would want to set the temperature of the vape device to at least 350″ (F) to get the most benefit from this terpene. Temperatures achieved with smoking should be sufficient to allow full availability of the myrcene.

 

Analgesia

Myrcene reduces pain produced by noxious thermal and mechanical stimuli as well as by reducing acute inflammation. A 2022 animal study examined the role of myrcene and cannabidiol (CBD) in controlling chronic joint inflammation and pain and concluded that opical application of myrcene  reduced joint pain and inflammation. However it was found that he combination of myrcene and CBD was not significantly different from myrcene alone so no synergistic effect with CBD was identified. Repeated myrcene treatment had no effect on joint damage or inflammatory cytokine production. Thee study suggests that topical myrcene has the potential to reduce chronic arthritis pain and inflammation but human studies are needed.

 

Myrcene has shown central and peripheral analgesic effects and is known to facilitate the analgesic effects of THC and CBD. Interestingly, myrcene’s analgesic benefit in mice can be blocked by naloxone (an opioid blocker) and by yohimbine (an α2 adrenergic blocker), suggesting the role of the opioid and noradrenergic systems. These results imply that the myrcene’s analgesic benefit is mediated by the release of endorphins (endogenous opioids) through the a2-adrenoreceptors. (See: Mechanisms of Action of Myrcene, below.)

 

It has also been proposed that myrcene alleves pain through interaction with TRPV1 channels involved in peripheral pain detection from noxious heat and pain. This mechanism of analgesia is also proposed for palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), suggesting the possibility of a synergistic effect with PEA. More research is required to confirm these proposals.

 

Lemongrass essential oil which is rich in myrcene (15–20%) has been shown to have strong analgesic effects similar to peripheral-acting opioids in different experimental models of pain in rats. Unlike morphine, no tolerance was noted after 5 days of repeated dosing in rats.

 

Anti-inflammatory

Like pinene, myrcene has significant anti-inflammatory effects via prostaglandin E2. Myrcene has protective effects in cartilage, suggesting potential anti-arthritic activity and the ability to halt, or at least slow cartilage destruction and arthritis progression. These effects are based on lab studies, human studies are lacking.

 

Muscle Relaxant

Myrcene is also believed to act as a muscle relaxant. However, this is based on studies in mice, human studies are lacking.

 

Sedation

Marijuana strains with high content pf Myrcene are known to produce “couch-lock” or sedation. It is frequently promoted to help sleep and relax.

Myrcene presence in cannabis

Strains that are rich in myrcene are Skunk XL, White Widow, and Special Kush but these are not available in Louisiana dispensary pharmacies.

Flower strains available in Louisiana dispensaries with higher content of myrcene:

  • Lumpy Space Princess (0.46%)
  • Grease Monkey (0.31%)
  • Mandarin Cookies  (0.23%)
  • Pillow Factory (percentage not available, but listed as a dominant terpene)

A recent study by Ibrahim et al. examined three varieties of C. sativa: varieties with high THC content, other varieties with high CBD content, and the third varieties with intermediate contents containing both THC and CBD at  significant levels.  Myrcene content was highest in the intermediate varieties compared to the other two varieties (0.87–1.32 mg/g). In the high CBD varieties, myrcene content was 0.54–0.68 mg/mL and in high THC varieties, myrcene content was 0.19– 0.72 mg/g.

 

Cannabis Strains with Myrcene Effective for Pain

In a 2018 study, “Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort,” all subgroups of chronic pain patients, especially primary headache patients, responded best for pain with hybrid strains, particularly those with terpene profiles with dominant myrcene and Β-caryophyllene.

In this study of the top 15 strains effective for migraine headaches all except two had myrcene contents ranging from 0.1% – 0.29%, with two outliers: 0.033% and  0.61%.

It is suggested that cannabis strains with myrcene in combination with THC, CBD and Β-caryophyllene may offer the best alternative combination for treating pain and headaches such as OG Shark.

Topical Mercene

Myrcene is hypoallergenic on the skin and is safe for topical use.

 

Myrcene presence in natural products

Myrcene is a component found in many essential oils. It occurs naturally in over 200 plants and trees in different parts of the world. Exposure to myrcene from natural food sources is estimated to be 16,500 times more than from its additive use as a flavoring agent.

See:

  1. Relative concentrations of β-myrcene in essential oils and some natural products – 1
  2. Relative concentrations of β-myrcene in essential oils and some natural products – 2
  3. Relative concentrations of β-myrcene in essential oils and some natural products – 3
  4. Relative concentrations of β-myrcene in essential oils and some natural products – 4
  5. β-myrcene content in various plant essential oils
  6. International standards regarding β-myrcene content in various plant essential oils

The above tables are from: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans – 2019

 

Pharmacokinetics of Myrcene

Myrcene is mainly distributed in fat tissues and in the liver, brain, kidneys and gonads. It is highly bioavailable, reaching the blood unaltered within 30 min after consumption of a single oral dose with a peak concentration between 2 and 4 hours. Myrcene is eliminated mostly in the urine with an elimination half-life of 4-5 hours.

 

Safety of Myrcene

At present the FDA no longer permits the use of pure β- myrcene as a flavoring agent due to a legal challenge. Currently, no data is available that correlates the therapeutic use of pure myrcene with health benefits in humans. Most of the studies on health benefits of myrcene are in animal models or cell culture. More randomized, controlled clinical studies are needed to evaluate and replicate myrcene’s effects in humans.

Overall, the evidence points to myrcene being safe if consumed at levels common for food and cannabis use.

 

How Myrcene Works

Entourage Effect – Synergy with Cannabinoids & Other Terpenes

Myrcene may also have a role in assisting cannabinoids to be transported across the blood-brain barrier, thereby increasing levels in the brain and enhancing psychoactive effects. It has been proposed that potential benefits of β-myrcene for peripheral and central analgesia may be related to boosting endocannabinoid levels in synergy with  other terpenes.

However, a recent study evaluated terpenoids found in cannabis either alone or when combined with 19- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol. The study concluded that none of the tested terpenes present in the cannabis plant (β-myrcene, pinene, caryophyllene and limonene) have a direct interaction with CB1 or CB2 receptors or by modifying the signalling of THC.

There are possibilities of entourage effects through the impact of terpenoids on other pathways of endocannabinoid system or through non-cannabinoid receptor mechanisms. However, there is limited research evaluating these theories.

 

Mechanisms of Action of Myrcene

The mechanism(s) behind myrcene’s proposed analgesic effects are not well understood. Several members of the Transient Receptor Potential  (TRP) super-family of non-selective cation channels have been identified both as pain receptors for and as targets for cannabinoids and terpenes. A 2019 study proposed mechanism is action on the TRPV1 channel. Other plant compounds (e.g., capsaicin (from peppers), allicin (from garlic), menthol) and possibly the terpene caryophyllene are known to act on TRPV1 to reduce nerve pain.

Both antagonism (blocking) and agonism (stimulation) of the TRPV1 are important pharmacological approaches for pain management. For example, TRPV1 antagonism has benefit in acute pain whereas chronic pain management requires longer-term actions such as receptor and nerve desensitization using TRPV1 agonists such as capsaicin. Topical 8% capsaicin treatment is standard for treating shingles pain but capsaicin is painful when applied initially until the nerves become desensitized and the pain resolves.

However, a 2020 study found no evidence that the terpenoids tested (a-pinene, b-pinene, b-caryophyllene, linalool, limonene, myrcene or a-humulene) activate TRPA1 and TRPV1 channels or modulate their activation by THC and other cannabis-related agonists, including endocannabinoids.

One mechanism of action of Myrcene thought to be via alpha 2-adrenoreceptors based on antagonism of the Myrcene effect by yohimbine and naloxone (See above, Analgesia). There is a connection between adrenoreceptors and TRPV1, where the adrenoreceptor activation inhibits TRPV1. Also, regarding the naloxone inhibition indicating opioid receptor involvement, functional interactions between opioid and TRPV1 receptors are known.

In 2020, another study concluded that terpenes commonly found in cannabis do not activate TRPA1 and TRPV1 channels nor do they modulate their activation by THC  or endogenous cannabinoids. Although they found no evidence for terpenoid–cannabinoid interactions at CB1, CB2, TRPV1, or TRPA1 receptors, terpene modulation of THC effects at TRPV2, TRPV3, GPR18, GPR55 were not excluded. The authors suggest that pharmacokinetic synergy may play a role where the terpenes modulate the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and/or excretion of the cannabinoids.

 

In a 2022 study on rats, myrcene was found to have anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in inflammatory joint disease possibly by activating articular cannabinoid receptors. While chronic myrcene treatment had no effect on joint pathology, long-term administration of myrcene did reduce inflammatory parameters with its activity on immune cells. In this study co-administration of myrcene with CBD failed to produce any synergistic response, arguing against an entourage effect between these two compounds. These findings may explain why arthritis patients may prefer Cannabis strains rich in myrcene to help manage their pain and inflammation.

 

 

Resources:

National Academy of Sciences

The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research

 

www.Healer.com

This website appears to be good resource for exploring medical marijuana.

 

References:

   

Terpenes: Myrcene

  1. β-MYRCENE – IARC MONOGRAPHS
  2. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015
  3. Myrcene—What Are the Potential Health Benefits of This Flavouring and Aroma Agent? – 2021
  4. Terpenoids Commonly Found in Cannabis sativa Do Not Modulate the Actions of Phytocannabinoids or Endocannabinoids on TRPA1 and TRPV1 Channels – 2020
  5. Myrcene and terpene regulation of TRPV1 – 2019
  6. Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Properties of the Cannabis Terpene Myrcene in Rat Adjuvant Monoarthritis – 2022
  7. GABAA receptor modulation by terpenoids from Sideritis extracts – 2014
  8. Terpenoids Commonly Found in Cannabis sativa Do Not Modulate the Actions of Phytocannabinoids or Endocannabinoids on TRPA1 and TRPV1 Channels – 2020
  9. Myrcene and terpene regulation of TRPV1 – 2019

 

Terpenes – Overviews

  1. Therapeutic and Medicinal Uses of Terpenes – 2019
  2. Terpenes:Terpenoids in Cannabis – Are They Important? – 2020
  3. Advances in Pharmacological Activities of Terpenoids – 2020
  4. Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant – 2020
  5. The Cannabis Terpenes – 2020
  6. The “Entourage Effect” – Terpenes Coupled with Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – 2020
  7. Cannabis Essential Oil – A Preliminary Study for the Evaluation of the Brain Effects – 2018
  8. A Systematic Review of Essential Oils and the Endocannabinoid System – A Connection Worthy of Further Exploration – 2020
  9. Efficacy of Essential Oils in Pain – A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Evidence – 2021

 

Terpenes – Aromatherapy

  1. Aromatherapy and Aromatic Plants for the Treatment of Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia in Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease Clinical Evidence and Possible Mechanisms – 2017
  2. Corrigendum – A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust -2015
  3. Odors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleepOdors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleep
  4. Essential Oils and Animals – Which Essential Oils Are Toxic to Pets?
  5. Essential Oils and Pets
  6. Herbs and Their Uses for Animals – Patchouli and Pets
  7. Reactivating memories during sleep by odors – odor specificity and associated changes in sleep oscillations – 2014
  8. Increasing Explicit Sequence Knowledge by Odor Cueing during Sleep in Men but not Women – 2016
  9. Effects of odorant administration on objective and subjective measures of sleep quality, post-sleep mood and alertness, and cognitive performance – 2003
  10. An Olfactory Stimulus Modifies Nighttime Sleep in Young Men and Women – 2005
  11. Massage with or without aromatherapy for symptom relief in people with cancer. – PubMed – NCBI
  12. Aromatherapy hand massage for older adults with chronic pain living in long-term care. – PubMed – NCBI
  13. A Systematic Review of Essential Oils and the Endocannabinoid System – A Connection Worthy of Further Exploration – 2020
  14. Human olfactory receptors – novel cellular functions outside of the nose,” – 2017
  15. The diversified function and potential therapy of ectopic olfactory receptors in non-olfactory tissues – PubMed – 2017
  16. How does your kidney smell? Emerging roles for olfactory receptors in renal function,” – 2017
  17. The Effects of Essential Oils and Terpenes in Relation to Their Routes of Intake and Application – 2020
  18. Pharmacology of Natural Volatiles and Essential Oils in Food, Therapy, and Disease Prophylaxis – 2021

 

Terpenes – CB2 Receptor

  1. Cannabinoid-based therapy as a future for joint degeneration. Focus on the role of CB2 receptor in the arthritis progression and pain – an updated review – 2021
  2. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice – 2014
  3. The CB2 receptor and its role as a regulator of inflammation – 2016

 

Terpenes – Synergy with Cannabinoids:

  1. Taming THC – potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects – 2011
  2. A tale of two cannabinoids: the therapeutic rationale for combining tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol. – PubMed – NCBI
  3. Entourage Effect 2.0
  4. Cannabis and the Anxiety of Fragmentation—A Systems Approach for Finding an Anxiolytic Cannabis Chemotype – 2018
  5. Terpenoids and Phytocannabinoids Co-Produced in Cannabis Sativa Strains Show Specific Interaction for Cell Cytotoxic Activity – 2019
  6. Absence of Entourage – Terpenoids Commonly Found in Cannabis sativa Do Not Modulate the Functional Activity of Δ9-THC at Human CB1 and CB2 Receptors – 2019
  7. Terpenoids From Cannabis Do Not Mediate an Entourage Effect by Acting at Cannabinoid Receptors – 2020
  8. The “Entourage Effect” – Terpenes Coupled with Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – 2020
  9. Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Properties of the Cannabis Terpene Myrcene in Rat Adjuvant Monoarthritis – 2022

 

Terpenes – Marijuana Strains

  1. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
  2. Terpenoid Chemoprofiles Distinguish Drug-type Cannabis sativa L. Cultivars in Nevada – 2018
  3. Terpenoids and Phytocannabinoids Co-Produced in Cannabis Sativa Strains Show Specific Interaction for Cell Cytotoxic Activity – 2019
  4. Identification of Terpenoid Chemotypes Among High (−)-trans-Δ9- Tetrahydrocannabinol-Producing Cannabis sativa L. Cultivars 0 2017
  5. The Cannabinoid Content of Legal Cannabis in Washington State Varies Systematically Across Testing Facilities and Popular Consumer Products – 2018

 

Terpenes – Routes of Use:

  1. The Effects of Essential Oils and Terpenes in Relation to Their Routes of Intake and Application – 2020
  2. Antiviral effect of phytochemicals from medicinal plants – Applications and drug delivery strategies – 2020
  3. Cannabinoid Delivery Systems for Pain and Inflammation Treatment – 2018

 

Terpenes – Bioavailability

  1. Bioavailability and Pharmacokinetics of Natural Volatile Terpenes in Animals and Humans – 2000
  2. Bioavailability of Bioactive Compounds
  3. SPC Liposomes as Possible Delivery Systems for Improving Bioavailability of the Natural Sesquiterpene β-Caryophyllene – 2018

 

Terpenes – Arthritis

  1. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015

 

Terpenes – Anxiety

  1. Cannabis and the Anxiety of Fragmentation—A Systems Approach for Finding an Anxiolytic Cannabis Chemotype – 2018
  2. The “Entourage Effect”: Terpenes Coupled With Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – PubMed – 2019
  3. Medicinal cannabis for psychiatric disorders – a clinically-focused systematic review – 2020
  4. A Systematic Review of the Anxiolytic-Like Effects of Essential Oils in Animal Models – 2015
  5. A Systematic Review on the Anxiolytic Effect of Aromatherapy during the First Stage of Labor – 2019
  6. A Systematic Review on the Anxiolytic Effectsof Aromatherapy in People with Anxiety Symptoms – 2011
  7. Anxiolytic Terpenoids and Aromatherapy for Anxiety and Depression – PubMed – 2020
  8. Effect of Aromatherapy on Dental Anxiety Among Orthodontic Patients – A Randomized Controlled Trial – 2019
  9. Essential Oils and Their Constituents – An Alternative Source for Novel Antidepressants – 2017
  10. Essential Oils and Their Constituents Targeting the GABAergic System and Sodium Channels as Treatment of Neurological Diseases – 2018
  11. Possible Use of Phytochemicals for Recovery from COVID-19-Induced Anosmia and Ageusia – 2021
  12. The calming effect of roasted coffee aroma in patients undergoing dental procedures – 2021
  13. The Effect of Lavender Aroma on Anxiety of Patients Having Bone Marrow Biopsy- 2020
  14. The-Effects-of-Essential-Oils-and-Terpenes-in-Relation-to-Their-Routes-of-Intake-and-Application-2020
  15. Therapeutic Effect and Mechanisms of Essential Oils in Mood Disorders – Interaction between the Nervous and Respiratory Systems – 2021
  16. Anxiolytic-Like Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil Are Insensitive to Flumazenil in Rats – 2019

 

Terpenes – Infectious Diseases

  1. Phytochemical Analysis and in vitro Antiviral Activities of the Essential Oils of Seven Lebanon Species – 2008
  2. Antiviral effect of phytochemicals from medicinal plants – Applications and drug delivery strategies – 2020
  3. Essential Oils and Coronaviruses – 2020

 

Terpenes – Pain

  1. Analgesic-like Activity of Essential Oils Constituents – 2011
  2. Analgesic-Like Activity of Essential Oil Constituents – An Update – 2017
  3. Medicinal Plants of the Family Lamiaceae in Pain Therapy – A Review – 2018
  4. Analgesic Potential of Essential Oils – 2016
  5. Medicinal Plants of the Family Lamiaceae in Pain Therapy – A Review – 2018
  6. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
  7. Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant – 2020
  8.  The Molecular Mechanisms That Underpin the Biological Benefits of Full-Spectrum Cannabis Extract in the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain and Inflammation – PubMed – 2020
  9. Cannabis-based medicines and the perioperative physician – 2019
  10. Cannabis‐based medicines for chronic neuropathic pain in adults – 2018
  11. Medicinal Properties of Cannabinoids, Terpenes, and Flavonoids in Cannabis, and Benefits in Migraine, Headache, and Pain – An Update on Current Evidence and Cannabis Science – 2018
  12. Role of Cannabinoids and Terpenes in Cannabis-Mediated Analgesia in Rats – PubMed – 2019
  13. Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice – 2018
  14. Analgesic Potential of Essential Oils – 2016
  15. Analgesic-Like Activity of Essential Oil Constituents – An Update – 2017
  16. Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Properties of the Cannabis Terpene Myrcene in Rat Adjuvant Monoarthritis – 2022

 

 

Terpenes – Headaches:

  1.  Medicinal Properties of Cannabinoids, Terpenes, and Flavonoids in Cannabis, and Benefits in Migraine, Headache, and Pain – An Update on Current Evidence and Cannabis Science – 2018
  2. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018

 

Terpenes – Inflammation:

  1. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015 
  2. Cannabis sativa L. and Nonpsychoactive Cannabinoids – Their Chemistry and Role against Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Cancer – 2018
  3. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
  4. Therapeutic Potential of Volatile Terpenes and Terpenoids from Forests for Inflammatory Diseases – 2020
  5.  The Molecular Mechanisms That Underpin the Biological Benefits of Full-Spectrum Cannabis Extract in the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain and Inflammation – PubMed – 2020
  6. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015
  7. Cannabis, Cannabinoids, and the Endocannabinoid System—Is there Therapeutic Potential for Inflammatory Bowel Disease? – 2019
  8. Therapeutic Applications of Terpenes on Inflammatory Diseases – 2021

 

Esssential Oils

Essential Oils – Overviews

  1. Essential Oils, Part I Introduction – PubMed – 2016
  2. Essential Oils, Part II General Aspects – PubMed – 2016
  3. Essential Oils, Part III Chemical Composition – PubMed – 2016
  4. Essential Oils, Part IV Contact Allergy – PubMed- 2016
  5. Essential Oils, Part V Peppermint Oil, Lavender Oil, and Lemongrass Oil – PubMed 2016

 

 

Essential Oils – Bearded Irises

  1. Identification of Floral Scent Profiles in Bearded Irises – 2019

 

 

Essential Oils – Bergamot

  1. The Anxiolytic Effect of Aromatherapy on Patients Awaiting Ambulatory Surgery – A Randomized Controlled Trial – 2013
  2. Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice – 2018
  3. Anxiolytic-Like Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil Are Insensitive to Flumazenil in Rats – 2019
  4. Bergamot – Natural Medicines – Professional.pdf
  5. Citrus bergamia essential oil – from basic research to clinical application – 2015
  6. Role of 5-HT1A Receptor in the Anxiolytic-Relaxant Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil in Rodent – 2020 Neuropharmacological Properties of the Essential Oil of Bergamot for the Clinical Management of Pain-Related BPSDs – PubMed – 2019
  7. Possible involvement of the peripheral Mu-opioid system in antinociception induced by bergamot essential oil to allodynia after peripheral nerve injury – PubMed – 2018
  8. Peripherally injected linalool and bergamot essential oil attenuate mechanical allodynia via inhibiting spinal ERK phosphorylation – PubMed – 2013
  9. Neuropharmacology of the essential oil of bergamot – PubMed – 2010
  10. Effect of Harvesting Time on Volatile Compounds Composition of Bergamot (Citrus × Bergamia) Essential Oil – 2019
  11. Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Essential Oils from Peels of Three Citrus Species – 2020
  12. Chemical_Composition_of_Bergamot_Citrus_Bergamia_Risso_Essential_Oil_Obtained_by_Hydrodistillation – 2010
  13. Cannabinoid Signaling in the Skin – Therapeutic Potential of the “C(ut)annabinoid” System – 2019
  14. Rational Basis for the Use of Bergamot Essential Oil in Complementary Medicine to Treat Chronic Pain – PubMed – 2016

 

Essential Oils – Plumeria

  1. Constituents of essential oils from the leaf and flower of Plumeria alba grown in Nigeria – PubMed – 2014

 

Individual Terpenes

Terpenes: β-Caryophyllene:

  1. (−)-β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 Receptor-Selective Phytocannabinoid, Suppresses Motor Paralysis and Neuroinflammation in a Murine Model of Multiple Sclerosis – 2017
  2. Antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice. – PubMed – NCBI
  3. Acute administration of beta-caryophyllene prevents endocannabinoid system activation during transient common carotid artery occlusion and reperfusion – 2018
  4. Antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice. – PubMed – NCBI
  5. Cannabimimetic phytochemicals in the diet – an evolutionary link to food selection and metabolic stress adaptation? – 2016
  6. The anxiolytic-like effect of an essential oil derived from Spiranthera odoratissima A. St. Hil. leaves and its major component, β-caryophyllene, in male mice – 2012
  7. β‐caryophyllene and β‐caryophyllene oxide—natural compounds of anticancer and analgesic properties – 2016
  8. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice – 2014
  9. Toxicological Evaluation of β-Caryophyllene Oil: Subchronic Toxicity in Rats. – PubMed – NCBI 2016
  10. The cannabinoid CB₂ receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic… – PubMed – NCBI – 2014
  11. The cannabinoid CB2 receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain – 2013
  12. SPC Liposomes as Possible Delivery Systems for Improving Bioavailability of the Natural Sesquiterpene β-Caryophyllene – 2018
  13. β-Caryophyllene Inhibits Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice through CB2 Receptor Activation and PPARγ Pathway – 2011
  14. Why wild giant pandas frequently roll in horse manure – 2020
  15. Beta-caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid – 2008
  16. Analgesia mediated by the TRPM8 cold receptor in chronic neuropathic pain. – 2006
  17. The menthol receptor TRPM8 is the principal detector of environmental cold – PubMed – 2007
  18. Molecular basis of peripheral innocuous cold sensitivity – 2018
  19. Involvement of peripheral cannabinoid and opioid receptors in β-caryophyllene-induced antinociception – PubMed – 2013
  20. NON-CANNABIS THERAPY – Cannabinoid Therapy Without Using Cannabis: Direct Effects™ Topical β-Caryophyllene
  21. Beta-caryophyllene enhances wound healing through multiple routes – 2019
  22. Preparation and Characterization of Liposomal β‐Caryophyllene (Rephyll) – 2020

 

Terpenes: Linalool:

  1. GS12-linalool
  2. Linalool – 1997
  3. The “Entourage Effect”: Terpenes Coupled With Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – PubMed – 2020
  4. An olfactory stimulus modifies nighttime sleep in young men and women. – PubMed – NCBI
  5. Lavender and sleep – A systematic review of the evidence – 2012
  6. Lavender and the Nervous System – 2013
  7. Effects of odorant administration on objective and subjective measures of sleep quality, post-sleep mood and alertness, and cognitive performance – 2003
  8. In-vitro inhibition of human erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase by salvia lavandulaefolia essential oil and constituent terpenes. – PubMed – NCBI – 2000
  9. Odors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleep – 2016
  10. A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust – 2015
  11. Is Lavender an Anxiolytic Drug? A Systematic Review of Randomised Clinical Trials – 2012
  12. Efficacy of Silexan in subthreshold anxiety – meta-analysis of randomised, placebo-controlled trials – 2019
  13. Essential oil of lavender in anxiety disorders – Ready for prime time? – 2017
  14. Linalool is a PPAR ligand that reduces plasma TG levels and rewires the hepatic transcriptome and plasma metabolome – 2014
  15. A Review of the Potential Use of Pinene and Linalool as Terpene-Based Medicines for Brain Health – Discovering Novel Therapeutics in the Flavours and Fragrances of Cannabis – 2021
  16. The Efficacy of Lavender Aromatherapy in Reducing Preoperative Anxiety in Ambulatory Surgery Patients Undergoing Procedures in General Otolaryngology – 2017
  17. Efficacy, Safety and Tolerability of Aroma Massage with Lavender Essential Oil – an Overview – 2020
  18. Antinociceptive and anticonvulsant effects of the monoterpene linalool oxide – 2017
  19. Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) Essential Oil on Central Nervous System Targets – 2017
  20. Linalool Ameliorates Memory Loss and Behavioral Impairment Induced by REM-Sleep Deprivation through the Serotonergic Pathway – 2018
  21. Effects of lavender on anxiety, depression and physiologic parameters – Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis – 2021
  22. Lavender and sleep – A systematic review of the evidence – 2012
  23. Lavender and the Nervous System – 2013
  24. A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust – 2015

 

 

Terpenes, Linalool: – Silexan

  1. A Multi-Center, Double-Blind, Randomised Study of the Lavender Oil Preparation Silexan in Comparison to Lorazepam for Generalized Anxiety Disorder – 2010
  2. Is Lavender an Anxiolytic Drug? A Systematic Review of Randomised Clinical Trials – 2012
  3.  An Orally Administered Lavandula Oil Preparation (Silexan) for Anxiety Disorder and Related Conditions- An Evidence Based Review – 2013
  4. Lavender oil preparation Silexan is effective in generalized anxiety disorder – a randomized, double-blind comparison to placebo and paroxetine – 2014
  5. Silexan in anxiety disorders – Clinical data and pharmacological background – 2017
  6. Effectiveness of Silexan Oral Lavender Essential Oil Compared to Inhaled Lavender Essential Oil Aromatherapy for Sleep in Adults- A Systematic Review – 2018
  7. Silexan in anxiety disorders Clinical data and pharmacological background – PubMed – 2018
  8. Efficacy and safety of lavender essential oil (Silexan) capsules among patients suffering from anxiety disorders – A network meta-analysis – 2019
  9. Efficacy of Silexan in subthreshold anxiety – meta-analysis of randomised, placebo-controlled trials – 2019
  10. Therapeutic effects of Silexan on somatic symptoms and physical health in patients with anxiety disorders – A meta- analysis – 2020
  11. Silexan, an orally administered Lavandula oil preparation, is effective in the treatment of ‘subsyndromal’ anxiety disorder a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial – PubMed – 2010
  12. A multi-center, double-blind, randomised study of the Lavender oil preparation Silexan in comparison to Lorazepam for generalized anxiety disorder – PubMed – 2009
  13. No Abuse Potential of Silexan in Healthy Recreational Drug Users – A Randomized Controlled Trial – 2021

 

Terpenes – Limonene

  1. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015
  2. Neuroprotective Potential of Limonene and Limonene Containing Natural Products – 2021

 

Terpenes: Myrcene

  1. β-MYRCENE – IARC MONOGRAPHS
  2. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015
  3. Myrcene—What Are the Potential Health Benefits of This Flavouring and Aroma Agent? – 2021
  4. Myrcene and terpene regulation of TRPV1 – 2019
  5. Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Properties of the Cannabis Terpene Myrcene in Rat Adjuvant Monoarthritis – 2022

 

Terpenes: Pinene

  1. A Review of the Potential Use of Pinene and Linalool as Terpene-Based Medicines for Brain Health – Discovering Novel Therapeutics in the Flavours and Fragrances of Cannabis – 2021

 

 

Medical Marijuana – Product Evaluation

  1. The Cannabinoid Content of Legal Cannabis in Washington State Varies Systematically Across Testing Facilities and Popular Consumer Products – 2018
  2. Quality Control of Traditional Cannabis Tinctures – Pattern, Markers, and Stability – 2016
  3. Cannabinoid, Terpene, and Heavy Metal Analysis of 29 Over-the-Counter Commercial Veterinary Hemp Supplements – 2020

 

Emphasis on Education

 

Accurate Clinic promotes patient education as the foundation of it’s medical care. In Dr. Ehlenberger’s integrative approach to patient care, including conventional and complementary and alternative medical (CAM) treatments, he may encourage or provide advice about the use of supplements. However, the specifics of choice of supplement, dosing and duration of treatment should be individualized through discussion with Dr. Ehlenberger. The following information and reference articles are presented to provide the reader with some of the latest research to facilitate evidence-based, informed decisions regarding the use of conventional as well as CAM treatments.

 

For medical-legal reasons, access to these links is limited to patients enrolled in an Accurate Clinic medical program.

 

Should you wish more information regarding any of the subjects listed – or not listed –  here, please contact Dr. Ehlenberger. He has literally thousands of published articles to share on hundreds of topics associated with pain management, weight loss, nutrition, addiction recovery and emergency medicine. It would take years for you to read them, as it did him.

 

For more information, please contact Accurate Clinic.

 

Supplements recommended by Dr. Ehlenberger may be purchased commercially online or at Accurate Clinic.

Please read about our statement regarding the sale of products recommended by Dr. Ehlenberger.

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