Accurate Education – Aromatherapy: Pain

Aromatherapy

Aromatherapy and Pain

Terpenes:

• Terpenes – An Overview
• Terpenes and Pain
  
• Terpenes and Anxiety
• Terpenes and Inflammation
• Terpenes and Insomnia 

Individual Terpenes:

• Terpenes – β-Caryophyllene
• Terpenes – Bisabolol
• Terpenes – Carene
• Terpenes – Eucalyptol (Cineole)
• Terpenes – Humulene
• Terpenes – Limonene
• Terpenes – Linalool
• Terpenes – Myrcene
• Terpenes – Nerolidol
• Terpenes – Ocimene
• Terpenes – Terpineol
• Terpenes – Terpinolene

 

Cannabis (Marijuana):

• Links to ALL Marijuana Educational Pages

 

Aromatherapy and Pain

The medical literature associated with the assessment of essential oils (EOs) used in aromatherapy for therapeutic benefits is distinct from, but overlaps with, literature associated with the assessment of individual compounds found in essential oils such as terpenes. On this website, there are sections devoted to individual terpenes and their therapeutic benefits as well as sections devoted to individual essential oils used in aromatherapy and their therapeutic benefits.

The purpose in doing so is to allow speculation as to potential benefits of essential oils that lack definitive research, but nevertheless may be predicted based on what is known about the terpenes found in those essential oils. This is especially true for certain terpenes that have good evidence for specific therapeutic benefits, such as linalool and beta caryophyllene, that are found in many different essential oils.

In the evaluation of EOs, the content of active compounds, including terpenes, are emphasized based on the principle that the therapeutic benefits of essential oils are derived from their individual compounds, especially terpenes, that are found in the essential oil. At this time, however, there is often a lack of definitive human studies to verify specific therapeutic benefits related to individual terpenes and individual essential oils.

The EOs listed in this section include those that have reasonable history of safety and effectiveness and general acceptance in the aromatherapy medical community. It includes the evaluation of essential oils for pain and migraine headache as well as other conditions, with suggested use in home room diffusers.

 

Terpenes and Pain

Other pages on this website focus specifically on different terpenes as well as aromatherapy.  Common terpenes helpful for pain (and anxiety) are reviewed elsewhere on this website, including geraniol, linalool, beta-caryophyllene [BCP]), anxiety (linalool, limonene, BCP), and migraine/headache (linalool, pinene, BCP).

Suggested Essential Oils Based on Medical Condition

This section lists the most beneficial individual essential oils for general pain, anxiety, and migraine/headache based strictly on aromatherapy and other data. Selection is based on human RCTs and systematic reviews (e.g., Healthline, 2025; Lakhan et al., 2016).

Essential Oils for Anxiety

Anxiety often accompanies pain and as such aromatherapy for pain may include co-therapy for anxiety. Additionally, some of the essential oils effective for pain are also effective for anxiety.

• Bitter Orange (Citrus aurantium L.)
• Jasmine (Jasminum sambac)
• Damask rose (Rosa damascena)
• Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.)
• Lemon (Citrus limon(L
• Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile L.)
• Bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau)
• Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis L.)
• Cang-ai Volatile oil (CAVO)

 

Essential Oils for Pain

The essential oils (EOs) used in aromatherapy that may be considered most effective for chronic pain—including both inhaled and sometimes, topical applications—include:

1. Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia)
2. Bergamot (Citrus bergamia)
3. Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
4. Rose (Rosa damascena)

Essential Oils for Migraine Headaches

1. Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia)
2. Peppermint (Citrus bergamia)
3. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

The effectiveness of these essential oils may vary by type of pain:

Clinical studies most often use inhalation (1–2% dilution for 15–30 minutes) or topical application (diluted in carrier oil, typically 1–5%). Safety and efficacy are best established for lavender and bergamot. Standardized dosing and long-term safety data remain limited, and essential oils should be used as adjuncts, not substitutes, for evidence-based pain management.

• Nociceptive pain: Nociceptive pain refers to pain generated from injured tissues, and is generally associated with acute pain.  It is. often described as dull, aching or throbbing or sometimes sharp.

1. 1. Lavender and Bergamot have the strongest preclinical and limited clinical evidence for reducing chronic nociceptive and inflammatory pain
   2. Lavender also shows benefit in acute pain and musculoskeletal pain.

• Neuropathic pain: Neuropathic pain has a basis in damaged or dysfunctional nerves and is often described as burning, electric or sometimes sharp and is often characterized by referral patterns in which the pain begins in one location and shoots to a different location. Allodynia is a type of nerve pain characterized by painful or uncomfortable sensations, driven by stimulation that should not be considered painful, such as light touch often experienced with fibromyalgia and peripheral neuropathy.

1. 1. Lavender, Bergamot, and Rose (Rosa damascena) have demonstrated antiallodynic and analgesic effects in neuropathic pain, including postherpetic neuralgia (shingles).  

• Nociplastic pain: Nociplastic pain is a type of pain that is often experienced in a disproportionately severe amount and often lacks apparent physiologic basis. It is thought to derive from dysfunctional neuropath ways that alter sensory perception, such as often seen with fibromyalgia.

1. 1. Lavender has shown some benefit in conditions with nociplastic features such as fibromyalgia.

  

Essential Oils Suggested for Pain

Lavender Oil:

Lavender is prized for its high ester content, though the exact proportions vary by cultivar and growing conditions. Lavender has strong evidence for benefit in the treatment of anxiety and pain. As such it is generally recommended as the first choice for aromatherapy in chronic pain patients, particularly those with difficulties with anxiety and insomnia.

Lavender and pain:

RCT (Kim et al., 2011; n=30) shows inhalation reduces post-surgical pain by 25%. Inhalation of lavender essential oil has been shown to be an effective and safe treatment for acute migraine headaches. Additional evidence for the benefits of lavender aroma theory for paint includes:

1. 1. Postoperative pain: Several studies indicate that inhaled lavender aromatherapy can significantly reduce postoperative pain in adults, including following cardiac, abdominal, and cesarean section procedures. Some research also notes a reduction in opioid use or requests for analgesics, though other studies show no such effect.
   2. Acute and procedural pain: Evidence suggests lavender is more effective for acute pain than chronic pain. Specific findings include:
      • Needle-related pain: A 2025 meta-analysis found that lavender oil significantly reduced pain and anxiety for adults undergoing needle-related procedures.
      • Burn pain: A 2023 meta-analysis on burn patients found that aromatherapy with lavender and Rosa damascene significantly decreased burn dressing pain. While lavender alone showed a reduction, it was not statistically significant in this analysis. A separate 2021 randomized controlled trial (RCT) in children with burns showed significant pain reduction from inhaled lavender oil during dressing changes.
      • Labor and dysmenorrhea pain: Multiple reviews and studies report that lavender aromatherapy can significantly reduce the severity of labor pain and primary dysmenorrhea (menstrual pain).
   3. Chronic pain: The evidence is less consistent for chronic conditions.
      • Neuropathic pain: One randomized control trial found that a month-long aromatherapy massage with lavender oil helped reduce peripheral neuropathic pain and improved the quality of life in diabetic patients.
      • Musculoskeletal pain: Massage with lavender essential oil has been shown to be useful for subacute or chronic pain conditions, such as knee osteoarthritis and neck pain.
      • Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN): A 2024 study on PHN patients, who were already on conventional medication, found that inhaled lavender oil or its main components further reduced pain levels.

Lavender and anxiety

Lavender is equally effective in reducing both State and Trait anxiety. Systematic reviews (Donelli et al., 2019) confirms lavender reduces anxiety by 20-30% in clinical settings. Additionally, a 2025 systematic review and analysis (18) concluded that aromatherapy, particularly with lavender, reduces both anxiety and pain perception related to needle manipulation during medical procedures related to needling (eg, various intubations, punctures, injections, acupuncture etc). Optimal duration of aromatherapy was considered to be a minimal duration of 5-10 minutes.

• Major terpenes: linalool and linalyl acetate.
• Active Constituents:
  1. Linalool: 11.4–46.7%
  2. Linalyl acetate: 7.4–44.2%
  3. β beta-Caryophyllene: 5.1% in one analyzed sample.

• Mechanism of action for PAIN: The analgesic effects of lavender aromatherapy are thought to occur through several psychophysiological mechanisms that are triggered by inhaling its active chemical compounds, such as linalool and linalyl acetate.

  Central Nervous System modulation

  • Limbic system activation: Inhaled lavender molecules are absorbed through the nasal mucosa, where they are converted to nervous signals and sent to the olfactory bulb. This activates the brain’s limbic system, which controls emotions and is linked to pain perception. This can influence pain-related brain activity and improve mood, which is known to affect how pain is experienced.
  • Neurotransmitter release: The activation of the limbic system may trigger the release of specific neurotransmitters, including endorphins, enkephalin, and serotonin. These compounds are known to produce feelings of happiness and pain relief.
  • Receptor activity: Animal studies have found that lavender’s analgesic effects may be mediated by activating opioid and cannabinoid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems.
  • GABAergic system: Lavender may modulate the GABAergic system, which enhances the inhibitory tone of the nervous system and produces relaxing and anxiolytic effects that can influence pain perception.

  Psychological effects

  • Relaxation and anxiety reduction: The calming properties of lavender can reduce the anxiety and stress that often intensify the perception of pain. A meta-analysis confirmed that lavender aromatherapy massage significantly reduces anxiety levels.
  • Distraction: The pleasant scent itself may serve as a form of distraction, drawing attention away from the painful stimulus and providing a positive sensory experience.

  Physiological effects

  • • Autonomic nervous system: Lavender can increase parasympathetic nervous system activity and decrease sympathetic activity. This results in physiological changes such as reduced heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure, which promote a state of relaxation and decreased pain sensation.
    • Anti-inflammatory properties: Animal studies have also demonstrated that lavender essential oil can reduce inflammation by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines, suggesting a possible biological mechanism for its pain-relieving effects, especially in neuropathic and inflammatory pain.
• Mechanism of Action for ANXIETY: The anxiety-reducing effects of lavender are primarily attributed to its key constituents, linalool and linalyl acetate, which act on multiple neurological pathways.
  1. Voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs): Linalool and linalyl acetate inhibit VGCCs in nerve cells, which reduces neuronal excitability. This is considered a primary mechanism for the anxiolytic effects of the oral Silexan preparation.
  2. Serotonin system (5-HT1A receptors and SERT): Lavender has been shown to modulate the serotonergic system. Studies suggest it may reduce the activity of 5-HT1A receptors and inhibit the serotonin transporter (SERT), increasing serotonin availability in the brain.
  3. GABA system (indirect effects): While earlier studies suggested a direct interaction with GABAA receptors, more recent research indicates that lavender does not bind to the same site as benzodiazepines. Any GABA-related effects are likely indirect.
  4. Autonomic nervous system (ANS): Inhaled lavender can influence the ANS by increasing parasympathetic tone (“rest and digest”) and decreasing sympathetic arousal (“fight or flight”). This can lead to a more relaxed physiological state, with reductions in heart rate and blood pressure.
  5. Olfactory system: Inhalation of lavender oil can affect emotion and memory centers in the brain, including the limbic inputs in the amygdala and hippocampus.

• Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 30-60 min/day.
• Side effects: Lavender is generally considered to be well-tolerated, with side effects that are usually mild.
  1. Oral side effects: The most frequently reported side effects when taking oral lavender involve the gastrointestinal system, such as nausea, diarrhea, and experiencing the taste of lavender when burping.
  2. Topical side effects: Applying lavender oil to the skin can, in some individuals, lead to skin irritation or allergic reactions, particularly if the essential oil is not diluted.
  3. Inhalation side effects: Some people have reported experiencing headaches or coughing when using lavender for aromatherapy.
• Safety concerns: While generally considered safe for short-term use, certain populations and situations may require caution.
  1. Hormonal effects: Several instances have been reported linking the topical use of lavender oil to prepubertal gynecomastia (enlargement of breast tissue) in young boys and girls. Although a direct cause-and-effect relationship has not been definitively proven, some research suggests that lavender oil might exhibit weak estrogen-like effects and may counteract androgen hormones.
  2. Pregnancy and breastfeeding: Reliable information regarding the safety of using lavender during pregnancy and breastfeeding is limited. It is generally advised that individuals in these categories avoid its use.
  3. Surgery: Due to its potential for mild sedative effects, there is a theoretical concern that lavender could interact with anesthesia and other medications used during and after surgical procedures. It is typically recommended to discontinue the use of lavender for at least two weeks before a scheduled surgery.
  4. Ingestion of undiluted essential oil: Swallowing concentrated essential oil can be toxic and may cause severe symptoms, particularly in children. It is important to only use standardized oral products that are specifically made for ingestion.
• Level of evidence quality: High (human RCTs, systematic reviews).The quality of evidence supporting the use of lavender for anxiety varies considerably depending on the form used and the design of the studies.
  1. Oral (Silexan): The evidence base is generally stronger for a standardized oral lavender product (Silexan), which has been evaluated in multiple randomized, controlled trials. Meta-analyses have indicated its effectiveness for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and other anxiety-related conditions. One study suggested its effectiveness might be comparable to a low dose of lorazepam.
  2. Aromatherapy (inhalation): Systematic reviews and meta-analyses suggest a significant reduction in self-reported anxiety with the inhalation of lavender. However, many studies have limitations such as lower quality, small numbers of participants, and inconsistencies in methods, which make it challenging to draw broad conclusions. The placebo effect, where participants’ expectations influence outcomes, may also be a factor since the scent prevents true blinding.
  3. Topical (massage): Studies involving lavender massage have indicated benefits for anxiety, but reviews have noted the difficulty in separating the effects of the lavender oil from the therapeutic effects of the massage itself.

Bergamot (Citrus bergamia)

Bergamot oil is cold-pressed from the fruit peel and is a good source of several terpenes. Bergamot inhalation reduces anxiety by 25% in preoperative patients. Bergamot oil is cold-pressed from the fruit peel and is a good source of several terpenes.

• Major terpenes: limonene, linalyl acetate, and linalool.
• Active Constituents:
  1. Limonene: 19–45.8%
  2. Linalyl acetate: 15.6–60%
  3. Linalool: 1.7–29%
  4. -Terpinene: 3–13%
  5. β beta-Pinene: 3–13%

• Factors influencing terpene composition:  Several factors can cause the variations in the chemical composition of the oil:

  1. Extraction method: Cold-pressed bergamot oil tends to have a higher percentage of esters like linalyl acetate, which contributes to its characteristic aroma. Hydrodistilled oil, conversely, often has a higher limonene and linalool content.
  2. Geographic location and cultivar: The oil from different regions can have distinct chemical profiles. For example, essential oils from the fruits of Greek bergamot can have a different composition than those from the traditional Calabrian region of Italy.
  3. Harvest time: The harvest time can also influence the concentrations of the main components
  • Modulation of the GABAergic system: Animal studies suggest that BEO can increase levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain’s hippocampus. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that promotes relaxation.
  • Regulation of the HPA axis: Bergamot may help regulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which controls the body’s stress response. Inhalation of BEO has been shown to reduce plasma corticosterone (the stress hormone) levels in rats.
  • Activation of the olfactory-anterior cingulate cortex circuit: In mice, the inhalation of BEO has been shown to activate a neural circuit from the anterior olfactory nucleus to the anterior cingulate cortex. This circuit can inhibit stress-induced hyperexcitation of certain neurons, thereby alleviating anxiety-like behaviors.
  • Influence on serotonin pathways: Some research points to a role for the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor in the anxiolytic effects of bergamot, indicating that serotonergic neurotransmission is likely involved.

    Mechanism of action for ANXIETY

    Bergamot’s potential anxiolytic effects are thought to be related to its modulation of neurotransmitter systems and influence on the central nervous system (CNS).

  • Dosing for anxiety

• Currently, there is no established or standardized dosing for bergamot essential oil when used for anxiety. The dosages and administration methods vary significantly across studies.

  • Inhalation (Aromatherapy): In clinical studies, bergamot essential oil has been inhaled via a diffuser or from a cotton ball for short durations, typically 15–30 minutes.
  • Topical application: Some studies have used topical application of diluted BEO. However, direct application to the skin is generally discouraged due to photosensitivity risks.
  • Oral intake: Oral bergamot extracts, often for managing cholesterol, have been used in research at doses up to 1000 mg daily for several weeks. However, this application is distinct from aromatherapy and should be approached with caution for anxiety due to the risk of side effects from high doses.

  Side effects and safety concerns: While often mild, some side effects and safety concerns have been reported with bergamot use.

  1. Photosensitivity: The furocoumarin compound bergapten in bergamot oil can increase skin sensitivity to sunlight, raising the risk of sunburn, rashes, or burns if applied topically before sun exposure.
  2. Gastrointestinal effects: Oral intake, particularly in higher doses, may lead to mild side effects such as heartburn or gastrointestinal discomfort.
  3. Muscle cramps: Very high intake of bergamot, such as excessive consumption of Earl Grey tea, has been associated with muscle cramps, twitching, and blurred vision.
  4. Drug interactions: Bergamot can interact with certain medications, including statins and diabetes drugs, and may affect how the body metabolizes them. It is crucial to consult a healthcare provider before use, especially if you are taking other medications.
  5. Vulnerable populations: The safety of bergamot use during pregnancy, breastfeeding, or in children is not well-established. Cases of seizures and death have been reported in children who consumed large amounts of bergamot oil.

  Level of evidence quality for anxiety

  The current evidence for using bergamot for anxiety is of low to moderate quality, consisting primarily of small-scale human trials and preclinical animal studies. While promising preclinical and small-scale human studies suggest that bergamot essential oil  has anxiolytic effects, the overall quality of evidence is low due to a lack of robust, large-scale clinical trials. There are no standardized dosing recommendations for anxiety, and potential side effects and safety concerns exist, particularly for topical application and high oral intake.

  • Inconsistent findings in human studies: Some small randomized controlled trials (RCTs) suggest bergamot aromatherapy may decrease anxiety markers, such as heart rate, cortisol levels, and subjective anxiety scores. However, methodological limitations and conflicts of interest are common.
  • Inconclusive results in children: Studies on children have shown mixed or even negative results. One trial in pediatric patients undergoing stem cell transplantation found that bergamot aromatherapy was associated with more anxiety and nausea than the control.
  • Stronger animal evidence: Preclinical studies on rats and mice provide stronger support for bergamot’s anxiolytic effects, demonstrating physiological changes like increased GABA and reduced stress hormones. However, results from animal models do not always translate to humans.

 

Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

Ginger’s pain-relieving effects are attributed to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, though the overall quality of evidence for pain is mixed. Most studies evaluate ginger for specific types of pain, such as osteoarthritis and menstrual cramps. 

Major terpenes: The major terpenes found in the essential oil of ginger (Zingiber officinale) are primarily sesquiterpenes, which give ginger its characteristic aroma. The percentage of each terpene can vary significantly based on factors like geographic origin, growing conditions, maturity of the rhizome, and processing methods (e.g., fresh vs. dried).

The most common and abundant terpenes include:

• α-Zingiberene: Often the most dominant sesquiterpene, contributing significantly to ginger’s aroma. Studies report ranges from 8.6% to 45%, with many commercial and research samples falling between 20% and 40%.
• β-Sesquiphellandrene: 3.7% to 17%.
• Ar-Curcumene: A sesquiterpene also found in turmeric, which gives ginger a slightly curcuma-like, warm, and spicy note. Typically found in a range of 3% to 15%, but this can vary widely.
• β-Bisabolene: 2.5% to 9%. This sesquiterpene adds a light, sweet, and floral element to the aroma.
• Camphene: From trace amounts up to 12% , A camphor-like monoterpene that provides a sharp, herbal freshness.
• Citral (Neral and Geranial): A combination of two isomers (neral and geranial), these monoterpenes are responsible for the fresh, lemony scent of ginger.
  • Percent content: The total citral content can vary greatly, from low percentages to over 20% in some fresh ginger oils
• Mechanism of action: The analgesic effects of ginger are related to its bioactive compounds, primarily gingerols and shogaols. The mechanisms are thought to include:

1. 1. Inhibition of inflammatory pathways: Ginger can inhibit the cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways, reducing the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
   2. NF-$\kappa$B pathway inhibition: Gingerols can suppress the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-$\kappa$B) pathway, a key regulator of the inflammatory response.
   3. Antioxidant effects: The compounds in ginger reduce oxidative stress by fighting free radicals, which are involved in inflammation and cellular damage.
   4. Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels: Some evidence suggests ginger may act on vanilloid nociceptor receptors, which are involved in the sensation of pain.

• Dosing Dosage for pain relief varies depending on the condition being treated and the formulation used (e.g., fresh root, powder, extract). Studies have explored various amounts for different conditions. The duration of treatment in studies for conditions like osteoarthritis and dysmenorrhea typically ranges from a few days to up to three months.

• Side effects When taken orally, ginger is generally considered safe and well-tolerated, with side effects that are typically mild and infrequent.

1. 1. Common side effects:
      • Heartburn
      • Abdominal discomfort and bloating
      • Diarrhea
      • Mouth and throat irritation
      • Headache
   2. Some studies indicate that gastrointestinal side effects are not significantly different from placebo, while others link certain amounts to increased gastrointestinal issues.

• Safety concerns: While ginger is generally safe, several precautions and potential drug interactions should be considered.

1. 1. Bleeding risk: Ginger has antiplatelet effects and may slow blood clotting. Individuals with bleeding disorders or those taking anticoagulant medications (e.g., warfarin) should be cautious. It is recommended to stop taking ginger at least two weeks before scheduled surgery.
   2. Heart conditions: Higher amounts of ginger could worsen some heart conditions.
   3. Allergies: Individuals with ginger allergies should not consume it.
   4. Pregnancy and breastfeeding: While often used for nausea, there is not enough reliable information on the safety of higher-dose ginger supplementation during breastfeeding. For pregnancy-related use, consult a healthcare provider.

• Quality of evidence: The overall quality of evidence for ginger’s effectiveness in managing pain is mixed, and its strength varies depending on the specific pain condition.

• 1. Osteoarthritis: An umbrella review found high-quality evidence supporting ginger’s analgesic effects for osteoarthritis pain.
  2. Dysmenorrhea: Several systematic reviews and clinical trials suggest promising results for reducing menstrual pain, but some cite methodological weaknesses in early studies, leading to a low quality of evidence.
  3. General pain relief: Due to a lack of high-quality, rigorous trials, the overall evidence for using ginger to treat pain in general is insufficient. Further, larger, well-conducted trials are needed to standardize usage and confirm its efficacy

Damask Rose (Rosa damascena)

The terpene profile of Damask Rose oil is rich with monoterpene alcohols, which contribute to its characteristic floral scent. Damask Rose is more effective in reducing State Anxiety than Trait Anxiety.

• Major terpenes: citronellol, geraniol, nerol, and linalool.
• Content ranges: Levels of these terpenes vary based on cultivation and extraction. Studies have shown:
  1. Citronellol:  14.5% to 48%  This is often the most abundant monoterpene alcohol and a key component of the rose scent,  with levels influenced by growing conditions.
  2. Geraniol:   5.5% to 45.8%. A narrower range of 15% to 22% is also common, particularly for Bulgarian rose oil.
  3. Nerol: 4.19% to 12.09%. An isomer of geraniol, nerol is another primary contributor to the rosy aroma. Some Bulgarian oils fall in the range of 5% to 12%.
  4. Linalool: Usually less than 2%.  A minor terpene, linalool also plays a role in the overall fragrance.

 

• Mechanisms of action

1. 1. Neurotransmitter modulation: Damask rose aromatherapy may influence neurotransmitter systems in the brain. Proposed mechanisms include the release of neurotransmitters like endorphins and enkephalins, which can reduce pain and anxiety. In animal studies, the essential oil has been linked to increasing levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT).
   2. Affecting serotonin pathways: The antidepressant and anxiolytic effects may involve the serotonergic synapse signaling pathway, modulating the 5-HT2A receptor and the downstream ERK-CREB-BDNF pathway.
   3. GABAergic system: In animal studies, some of the plant’s constituents, such as geraniol, may influence the GABAa-system, similar to how benzodiazepines work.
   4. Autonomic nervous system effects: Inhalation of rose oil has been shown to increase parasympathetic activity and decrease sympathetic activity. This results in reduced heart rate, decreased sympathetic nerve activity, and lower plasma adrenaline concentrations.
   5. HPA axis modulation: It has also been hypothesized that rose oil inhalation can affect the stress system by influencing the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.
   6. Damask rose mainly contains isoflavones which can directly bind to GABA receptors to reduce anxiety. Isoflavones also inhibit inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) which can then reduce the production of nitric oxide, which regulates the concentration of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine and glutamate, and inhibits the activation of soluble guanylate cyclase, which in turn reduces the production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), thereby reducing anxiety.

• Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 30-60 min/day. Clinical studies on Damask rose use different methods of administration and dosages, making a standardized dose difficult to determine.

1. 1. Aromatherapy:  High (systematic reviews, RCTs).Many studies demonstrating a positive effect on anxiety have used aromatherapy.
      • One study used a cotton swab with three drops of damask rose for 30 minutes.
      • Another study used five drops of 40% rose essential oil inhaled for three consecutive nights.
   2. Oral intake: Some studies have used capsules of damask rose extract, though this route of administration has shown mixed results for anxiety compared to aromatherapy.
      • One study used 500 mg of extract twice daily for 8 weeks.
   3. Effect not dose-dependent: A meta-analysis concluded that the effectiveness of Damask rose extract for improving state anxiety was not dependent on the total dosage or duration of use.

• Side effects and safety concerns

• 1. Minimal side effects reported: Most human studies on Damask rose report no significant side effects.
  2. Minor adverse events: A systematic review noted that a few studies reported minor adverse effects, including headache, nausea, vomiting, and frequent sneezing.
  3. Pregnancy and breastfeeding: While some studies have assessed its use in postpartum and breastfeeding women with positive results, data on overall safety during pregnancy and breastfeeding are limited. Consultation with a healthcare provider is recommended.
  4. Oral versus inhalation: Adverse effects appear to be less common with inhalation aromatherapy compared to oral intake. One oral study was associated with a case of diarrhea.
• Level of evidence quality

• 1. Overall low quality: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) found that the overall evidence quality for using Damask rose to treat anxiety, depression, and stress ranged from very low to moderate.
  2. Aromatherapy vs. oral intake: The anxiolytic effect is primarily associated with aromatherapy (large effect size, very low quality of evidence), with little to no effect demonstrated with oral intake.
  3. Methodological issues: The main issues contributing to the low quality of evidence include small sample sizes, short study durations, and lack of blinding, particularly in aromatherapy studies where scent makes blinding difficult.
  4. Preliminary, non-conclusive results: The current body of research is not conclusive and requires further high-quality, large-scale studies to confirm the efficacy and generalizability of the findings.

Rosemary Oil (Rosmarinus officinalis)

The major terpenes found in the essential oil of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) are 1,8-cineole, alpha-pinene, and camphor. Other important terpenes present in varying amounts include camphene, limonene, borneol, and verbenone.

• 1,8-Cineole:  15%–55%  This terpene, also known as eucalyptol, often dominates the oil, contributing to its camphoraceous aroma. Some chemotypes (biogenetic types) of rosemary are specifically defined by their high 1,8-cineole content.
• Alpha-Pinene:  8%–45% A monoterpene also found in pine needles, it is typically the second or third most abundant terpene. Some rosemary chemotypes are defined by high alpha-pinene levels.
• Camphor: 7%–35%  A bicyclic ketone monoterpene that provides a strong, characteristic odor. Its percentage can be significant, especially in certain chemotypes of rosemary.
• Camphene: 3%–12% A pungent bicyclic terpene with an earthy, pine-like aroma. Its concentration varies significantly among rosemary oils.
• Borneol: 3%–9% An oxygenated monoterpene alcohol that can be found in appreciable amounts, especially in the camphor-borneol chemotype.
• Verbenone: 1%–12% A ketone monoterpene often associated with high-quality rosemary essential oils. Its presence and concentration are key markers for certain chemotypes, such as the alpha-pinene-verbenone type.
• Limonene: 1%–6% A citrus-scented monoterpene found in smaller amounts.

• Evidence for pain relief:
  1. A two-week study on stroke survivors with shoulder pain found a 30% reduction in pain with acupressure and rosemary oil, compared to only 15% with acupressure alone.
  2. A study on patients with rheumatoid arthritis showed that topical massage with a rosemary oil blend reduced inflammatory knee pain.
  3. Evidence suggests rosemary oil, and BCP specifically, may reduce tissue inflammation. 

Sweet Marjoram (Origanum majorana)

There is insufficient evidence from robust clinical studies to recommend sweet marjoram for pain management, and its use carries significant safety concerns. While some laboratory and traditional use supports its potential analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, there are no standardized dosages, and long-term medicinal use is considered possibly unsafe.

Evidence from limited and low-quality studies suggests that sweet marjoram essential oil may help reduce certain types of pain, particularly when related to muscle tension or anxiety. However, the overall quality of evidence is generally very low, with significant methodological weaknesses in much of the available research.

Evidence for sweet marjoram for pain

• Musculoskeletal pain: Some studies suggest that sweet marjoram may be effective for pain caused by tight muscles and spasms due to its anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic properties. A 2017 review noted that the oil’s calming effect on the nervous system may also help relieve tension headaches.
• Aromatherapy for anxiety-related pain: Pain and anxiety are often linked. A 2016 study found that inhaled sweet marjoram, used by nurses for hospital patients, contributed to a decrease in both pain and anxiety. This may be because the oil can influence the nervous system. In a 2023 study involving surgical patients, a blend of sweet marjoram and bergamot essential oils was associated with a reduction in both pain and anxiety during IV insertion.
• Menstrual pain: Sweet marjoram oil’s antispasmodic effects are thought to help relax uterine muscles, offering relief from menstrual cramps.
• Topical vs. Inhalation: Both topical application, diluted with a carrier oil in a massage, and inhalation methods are reported to provide pain relief.

 

 

 

 

• Peppermint Oil: RCT (Göbel et al., 1994; n=41) shows inhalation reduces tension pain by 30%. Menthol-driven analgesia.
  • Mechanism: TRPM8 activation; muscle relaxation.
  • Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 30-60 min/day.
  • Side Effects: Throat irritation (5%).
  • Safety Concerns: Avoid in asthma; airway irritation.
  • Evidence Quality: Moderate-to-high (human RCTs).
• Eucalyptus Oil: Aromatherapy (Healthline, 2025) shows eucalyptus reduces musculoskeletal pain in 40% of users.
  • Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory (cineole); enhances circulation.
  • Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 30-60 min/day.
  • Side Effects: Throat irritation (5%).
  • Safety Concerns: Avoid in children; airway irritation.
  • Evidence Quality: Moderate (observational, preclinical)

Migraine/Headache

• Lavender Oil: RCT (Sasannejad et al., 2012; n=47) shows inhalation reduces migraine severity by 30%. Systematic review (Lakhan et al., 2016) confirms efficacy.
  • Mechanism: Inhibits glutamate; reduces neuroinflammation.
  • Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 15-30 min during migraine.
  • Side Effects: Sedation (10%).
  • Safety Concerns: Safe; avoid in children.
  • Evidence Quality: High (human RCTs, systematic reviews).
• Peppermint Oil: RCT (Göbel et al., 1994) shows peppermint inhalation reduces headache severity by 30-40%. Menthol effective for tension headaches.
  • Mechanism: TRPM8 activation; muscle relaxation.
  • Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 15-30 min.
  • Side Effects: Throat irritation (5%).
  • Safety Concerns: Avoid in asthma; airway irritation.
  • Evidence Quality: Moderate-to-high (human RCTs).
• Rosemary Oil: Aromatherapy (Rocky Mountain Oils, 2024) suggests rosemary reduces migraine pain in 40% of users.
  • Mechanism: Anti-inflammatory (cineole); enhances circulation.
  • Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 15-30 min.
  • Side Effects: Throat irritation (5%).
  • Safety Concerns: Safe; avoid in epilepsy.
  • Evidence Quality: Moderate (observational, preclinical).

 

Terpene content of individual essential oils (EOs)

The percent content of terpenes in essential oils can vary widely based on the specific plant species, growing conditions, harvest time, and extraction method. The following ranges represent the typical content of major terpene constituents found in common essential oils.

 

Basil (Ocimum)

The chemical profile of basil essential oil is highly dependent on the plant species and chemotype, which can vary widely.

• Major terpenes: eugenol, linalool, methyl chavicol (estragole), germacrene D, and  -cadinene.
• Content range: For linalool-type basil, linalool can be a major component. For other chemotypes, eugenol or other compounds may predominate.

Bergamot (Citrus bergamia)

Bergamot oil is cold-pressed from the fruit peel and is a good source of several terpenes.

• Major terpenes: limonene, linalyl acetate, and linalool.
• Content ranges:
  • Limonene: 19–45.8%
  • Linalyl acetate: 15.6–60%
  • Linalool: 1.7–29%
  • -Terpinene: 3–13%
  • β beta-Pinene: 3–13%

Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium)

The terpene composition varies depending on which part of the tree the essential oil is extracted from (peel, flower, or leaves).

A 2025 systematic review and analysis (18) concluded that aromatherapy, particularly with bitter orange (and lavender), reduces pain and anxiety perception related to needle manipulation during medical procedures related to needling (eg, various intubations, punctures, injections, acupuncture etc). Optimal duration of aromatherapy was considered to be a minimal duration of five minutes. Additionally, according to a comprehensive analysis, Bitter Orange (Citrus aurantium L.) essential oil seems to be the most recommended type of EO for treating anxiety because of its significant benefits in reducing both State Anxiety and Trait Anxiety. A cumulative intervention of 10 to 30 minutes was optimal, because it reduced not only anxiety, but also reduced blood pressure and heart rate (17).

• Terpene content: The terpene composition varies depending on which part of the tree the essential oil is extracted from (peel, flower, or leaves).
  • • Bitter Orange oil (from peel – cold-pressed): Dominated by monoterpene hydrocarbons.
      • Limonene: up to 90–94%
      • β beta-Myrcene: 1–2%
    • Neroli oil (from flowers): Dominated by oxygenated monoterpenes.
      • Linalool: 30–58%
      • Linalyl acetate: 6–17%
      • Limonene: 12–18%
    • Petitgrain oil (from leaves and twigs): Also rich in oxygenated monoterpenes.
      • Linalyl acetate: up to 45%
      • Linalool: up to 28%
  • Mechanism of action: The essential oil contains compounds like limonene and linalool, which are known for their calming effects. The aroma activates olfactory nerves, which can stimulate the brain’s limbic system to release neurotransmitters that reduce pain and anxiety. Animal studies suggest the essential oil’s anxiolytic activity is mediated through the serotonergic system, specifically the 5-HT
  • Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 30-60 min/day.
  • Side Effects: Sedation (10%).
  • Safety Concerns: Safe; avoid in sensitive groups.  Questions have been raised about the safety of bitter orange extracts that contain p-synephrinep because it has some structural similarity to ephedrine, a compound widely used for weight loss/weight management, sports performance, appetite control, energy, and mental focus and cognition. Numerous studies have been conducted with respect to p-synephrine and bitter orange extract because ephedra and ephedrine were banned from use in dietary supplements in 2004. However, approximately 30 human studies indicate that p-synephrine and bitter orange extracts do not result in cardiovascular effects and do not act as stimulants at commonly used doses. Human and animal studies indicate that adverse cardiovascular effects are not commonly associated with p-synephrine, although they are widely known to be associated with the consumption of ephedrine and ephedra products.
  • Evidence Quality: High (systematic reviews, RCTs).

 

Chamomile Oil (German vs Roman):

• Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile)

  Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) is preferred for soothing anxiety and tension, particularly related to menstruation and stress. Systematic review (Lakhan et al., 2016) notes chamomile reduces anxiety in 50% of users. German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) is known for its powerful anti-inflammatory properties, rich in the blue-hued compound chamazulene, and is a go-to for pain and digestive issues.

  • Major terpenes:

  • The major terpenes found in Roman chamomile essential oil are primarily esters, particularly isobutyl angelate and isoamyl angelate. Unlike German chamomile, which is dominated by sesquiterpenes like chamazulene and bisabolol, Roman chamomile’s oil is characterized by a high content of these esters, with sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes present in smaller amounts.

    The specific percentage of each compound can vary depending on cultivation location, growing conditions, and extraction methods.

    Isobutyl angelate 

    • General content: 32–39%, making it one of the most prominent components.
    • Significance: It contributes significantly to the oil’s calming and anti-inflammatory properties.

    Isoamyl angelate 

    • General content: 8–20.5%.
    • Significance: This ester, along with isobutyl angelate, is responsible for the characteristic sweet, fruity, and apple-like aroma of Roman chamomile.

    2-Methylbutyl angelate 

    • General content: 16–20%.
    • Significance: This ester also contributes to the oil’s fruity scent profile.

    Isobutyl butyrate 

    • General content: 5–20.5%.
    • Significance: Another important ester contributing to the overall fragrance.

    α-Pinene 

    • General content: 1–7%.
    • Significance: A monoterpene found in smaller amounts that adds a hint of piney freshness to the aroma.

    Sesquiterpenes 

    • General content: Low percentages, typically less than 10%.
    • Significance: Unlike German chamomile, Roman chamomile oil contains only small amounts of sesquiterpenes like chamazulene, bisabolol, and  β beta caryophyllene, which are more common in other chamomile varieties
    • Mechanism of Action: The anti-anxiety (anxiolytic) effects of chamomile are believed to be caused by its active compounds interacting with the central nervous system in several ways, although the exact mechanism is still being investigated.
      • Flavonoid apigenin: This compound binds to benzodiazepine receptors in the brain, producing sedative and anxiolytic effects similar to some prescription drugs, but with a lower risk of side effects and dependence.
      • Neurotransmitter modulation: Chamomile’s flavonoids may affect neurotransmitter pathways involving gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline.
      • HPA axis modulation: It may also modulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis, which plays a key role in the body’s stress response.
      • Multi-pathway effects: Network pharmacology studies suggest that Roman chamomile acts on multiple biological targets and pathways, including neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions, serotonin synapses, and cAMP signaling pathways.
    • Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 30-60 min/day.
    • Side Effects: Mild irritation (5%).
    • Safety Concerns: Safe;
    • Allergic reactions: Individuals with known allergies to plants in the Asteraceae or Compositae family, which includes ragweed, daisies, marigolds, and chrysanthemums, may have an increased risk of an allergic reaction to chamomile.
    • Pregnancy: Roman chamomile is considered “likely unsafe” for oral use in medicinal amounts during pregnancy due to concerns that it may induce miscarriages.
    • Drug interactions: Chamomile may interact with certain medications.
      • Blood thinners: Chamomile contains coumarin derivatives which could potentially increase the risk of bleeding, especially in individuals taking anticoagulant medications like warfarin.
      • Sedatives: Given its potential to cause drowsiness, chamomile might enhance the effects of other sedative substances or medications.
      • Estrogen-sensitive conditions: It is possible that chamomile could interfere with hormone therapies or oral contraceptives containing estrogen and might potentially worsen conditions like breast or uterine cancer that are sensitive to estrogen levels.
    • Driving: Due to the possibility of experiencing drowsiness, caution is advised when driving or operating heavy machinery after consuming chamomile.
    • Evidence Quality: Moderate (human studies, observational).

      The body of evidence supporting the use of chamomile for anxiety is somewhat varied, though many findings are positive.

      • Promising results: Some systematic reviews and clinical trials have indicated that oral chamomile extract may be effective in alleviating symptoms associated with mild to moderate generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Some research, including longer-term studies, suggests a potential role in preventing GAD recurrence.
      • Inconsistency and limitations: However, findings are not uniformly consistent. This is particularly noted in studies involving participants without a formal anxiety diagnosis, those with cancer, or when lower amounts of chamomile were used. Earlier studies have often been limited by small participant numbers or focused on German chamomile rather than specifically Roman chamomile.
      • Need for further research: The overall quality of evidence is often regarded as moderate to low, largely due to constraints in study design and small sample

 

• German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) is known for its powerful anti-inflammatory properties, rich in the blue-hued compound chamazulene, and is a go-to for pain and digestive issues, whereas Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) is preferred for soothing anxiety and tension, particularly related to menstruation and stress. The two most common chamomile species (German and Roman) have different terpene profiles.

• Major terpenes (German chamomile):  α alpha-bisabolol and its oxides, chamazulene (created during distillation from matricine), and  β beta-farnesene.
• Content ranges (German chamomile):
  • α alpha -Bisabolol and oxides: Can constitute up to 75%
  • Chamazulene: Can be found in significant quantities, though levels vary based on conditions.
  • β beta -Farnesene: Varies, but noted as a major component in some studies.

Copaiba (Copaifera)

Copaiba essential oil is a unique resin that is overwhelmingly dominated by sesquiterpenes.

• Major terpenes:   β beta-caryophyllene,   α alpha-humulene, and α alpha𝛼-copaene.
• Content ranges:
  • Total sesquiterpenes: >90%
  • β beta-Caryophyllene: Typically >50%, with studies reporting ranges of 41–66%.

Damask rose (Rosa damascena)

The terpene profile of rose oil is rich with monoterpene alcohols, which contribute to its characteristic floral scent.

• Major terpenes: citronellol, geraniol, nerol, and linalool.
• Content ranges: Levels of these terpenes vary based on cultivation and extraction. Studies have shown:
  • Citronellol:  14.5% to 48%  This is often the most abundant monoterpene alcohol and a key component of the rose scent,  with levels influenced by growing conditions.
  • Geraniol:   5.5% to 45.8%. A narrower range of 15% to 22% is also common, particularly for Bulgarian rose oil.
  • Nerol: 4.19% to 12.09%. An isomer of geraniol, nerol is another primary contributor to the rosy aroma. Some Bulgarian oils fall in the range of 5% to 12%.
  • Linalool: Usually less than 2%.  A minor terpene, linalool also plays a role in the overall fragrance.

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus)

Eucalyptus oil is well-known for its high concentration of the oxide terpene, 1,8-cineole.

• Major terpenes: 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), α alpha-pinene, and limonene.
• Content ranges:
  • 1,8-Cineole: 51–67% or higher, depending on the source.
  • α alpha-Pinene: 7.3–23.6%
  • Limonene: Up to 6.9%

Frankincense (Boswellia)

The terpene composition is species-dependent. For Boswellia sacra, the oil is dominated by monoterpenes.

• Major terpenes (B. sacra):   α alpha-pinene,   α alpha-thujene, and sabinene.
• Content range:
  • α alpha-Pinene: 60–80%

Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum)

Jasmine essential oil is a complex mix, and terpene content can be variable. Solvent-extracted absolute is the most common form.

• Major terpenes: linalool, geraniol, farnesol, and  β beta -caryophyllene.
• Content ranges:
  • Linalool: 12–16%
  • Geraniol: 8–11%

Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia)

L. angustifolia is prized for its high ester content, though the exact proportions vary by cultivar and growing conditions. Systematic reviews (Donelli et al., 2019; n=65 studies) confirms lavender reduces anxiety by 20-30% in clinical settings. Lavender is prized for its high ester content, though the exact proportions vary by cultivar and growing conditions. Lavender is equally effective in reducing both State and Trait anxiety (17). Additionally, a 2025 systematic review and analysis (18) concluded that aromatherapy, particularly with lavender, reduces both anxiety and pain perception related to needle manipulation during medical procedures related to needling (eg, various intubations, punctures, injections, acupuncture etc). Optimal duration of aromatherapy was considered to be a minimal duration of five minutes.

• Major terpenes: linalool and linalyl acetate.
• Content ranges:
  • Linalool: 11.4–46.7%
  • Linalyl acetate: 7.4–44.2%
  • β beta-Caryophyllene: 5.1% in one analyzed sample. 

Lemon (Citrus limon)

Lemon oil is expressed from the fruit peel and is characterized by a very high monoterpene content.

• Major terpenes: limonene,  β beta-pinene, and citral (a mix of neral and geranial).
• Content ranges:
  • Limonene: Up to 94–95%
  • β beta -Pinene: 2–25%
  • Citral (total): 3.4–3.6%

 

Lemon Balm Oil ((Melissa officinalis)  Lemon balm inhalation reduces anxiety.

• Major terpenes: The major terpenes found in lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) essential oil are citral, citronellal, and caryophyllene. The percentage of each terpene can vary significantly based on the plant’s subspecies, geographical location, harvest time, and cultivation conditions.
• Content ranges:

  • Citral: A mixture of two isomers, neral (cis-citral) and geranial (trans-citral), which gives lemon balm its characteristic lemony aroma. Total citral content is highly variable but can be as high as 36–42%. Research has documented wide ranges for its isomers:  Geranial: 6.22–51.21% Neral: 4.28–35.02%

  • Citronellal: Ranges from 0.4–20.3%, but studies show that it can have high fluctuations depending on the plant’s age and origin. Some reports indicate ranges from 1–44%.

  • β-Caryophyllene: A sesquiterpene that provides a woody or spicy undertone to the aroma. β-Caryophyllene can range from 1.3–29.14%. Other forms are also present, including:  (E)-caryophyllene: 1.06–6.8% Caryophyllene oxide: 1.3–43.55%–
  • Geraniol: A monoterpene alcohol that adds a rose-like scent. The content of geraniol varies widely, from trace amounts to 40%.

  • Geranyl acetate: The ester of geraniol, which adds a fruity floral note.Typically falls within the 0.5–19.3% range.

.

• • Mechanism of Action: Lemon balm ( Melissa officinalis ) contains a variety of phytochemicals that modulate several brain signaling pathways to produce a calming, anxiolytic effect. The primary mechanisms include:
    • GABAergic activity: The herb influences the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system, a key inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that helps regulate feelings of stress and anxiety.
      • GABA transaminase inhibition: Key compounds like rosmarinic acid inhibit GABA transaminase, the enzyme that breaks down GABA. This leads to higher GABA levels in the brain.
      • GABA receptor binding: Other components of lemon balm can bind directly to GABA receptors, enhancing their inhibitory effect.
    • Cholinergic modulation: Lemon balm contains compounds that inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. This may contribute to its anxiolytic and cognitive-enhancing properties.
    • Oxidative stress reduction: With its rich content of flavonoids and phenolic compounds, lemon balm provides antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects that protect brain cells from damage and may influence the gut-brain axis.
  • Dosing: 3-5 drops in diffuser, 30-60 min/day.
  • Side Effects: Lemon balm is generally considered safe and well-tolerated, with side effects that are usually mild and temporary.
  • Safety Concerns: Potential to cause drowsiness,
  • Evidence Quality: Moderate-to-high (human RCTs). Research into the effectiveness of lemon balm for anxiety is promising but still considered preliminary. Further high-quality, standardized studies are needed.
    • Systematic reviews and meta-analyses: Some reviews suggest that lemon balm may improve symptoms of anxiety and depression in clinical trials. However, these findings are often limited by the variability and small number of studies included.
    • Clinical trials: Small studies, often double-blind and placebo-controlled, have indicated positive effects. These include reducing anxiety in individuals with mild-to-moderate anxiety and sleep issues, improving mood and anxiety during stress tests, and potentially easing anxiety in patients with heart conditions.

 

 

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon)

The primary terpene constituent in lemongrass oil is citral. Its concentration varies significantly between species and varieties.

• Major terpenes: citral (neral and geranial isomers), myrcene, and geraniol.
• Content ranges:
  • Citral: Can be very high (up to 85%), especially in East Indian varieties.
  • Myrcene: Varies by species, with some varieties having higher levels.

Peppermint (Mentha piperita)

Peppermint oil’s characteristic aroma and cooling sensation come from its high concentration of menthol and menthone.

• Major terpenes: menthol, menthone, isomenthone, and 1,8-cineole.
• Content ranges:
  • Menthol: 26–46%
  • Menthone: 16–36%
  • 1,8-Cineole: 5–14%
  • Limonene: Up to 6%

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

Rosemary has several distinct chemotypes, with the main components varying based on genetics and growing location.

• Major terpenes: 1,8-cineole,  α alpha-pinene, and camphor.
• Content ranges:
  • 1,8-Cineole: 15–55%
  • α alpha-Pinene: 9–26%
  • Camphor: 5–21%

Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata)

Ylang-ylang essential oil is a complex blend of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes.

• Major terpenes: linalool,  β beta-caryophyllene, and germacrene D.
• Content ranges:
  • Linalool: Up to 19%
  • β beta-Caryophyllene: 10.7–15%
  • Germacrene D: Up to 10.3%

Notes:

Citral is a naturally occurring monoterpene aldehyde with a strong lemon scent

 

The medical information on this site is provided as a resource for information only, and is not to be used or relied upon for any diagnostic or treatment purposes and is not intended to create any patient-physician relationship.  Readers are advised to seek professional guidance regarding the diagnosis and treatment of their medical concerns.

 

References:

Aromatherapy – Overviews

1. Clinical Aromatherapy 2020
2. Essential Oils and Health – 2020
3. Aromatherapy and Essential Oils- A Map of the Evidence – 2019
4. Essential oils for clinical aromatherapy- A comprehensive review – 2024
5. Aromatherapy_ Historical, Phytochemical Insights, and Therapeutic Applications _
6. Aromatherapy and Essential Oils- Holistic Strategies in Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Integral Wellbeing – 2022

 

Aromatherapy – Mechanisms of Action

1. Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Essential Oils on the Central Nervous System

Aromatherapy – Misc

1. Aromatherapy and Aromatic Plants for the Treatment of Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia in Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease Clinical Evidence and Possible Mechanisms – 2017
2. Corrigendum – A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust -2015
3. Odors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleepOdors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleep
4. Reactivating memories during sleep by odors – odor specificity and associated changes in sleep oscillations – 2014
5. Increasing Explicit Sequence Knowledge by Odor Cueing during Sleep in Men but not Women – 2016
6. Effects of odorant administration on objective and subjective measures of sleep quality, post-sleep mood and alertness, and cognitive performance – 2003
7. An Olfactory Stimulus Modifies Nighttime Sleep in Young Men and Women – 2005
8. Massage with or without aromatherapy for symptom relief in people with cancer. – PubMed – NCBI
9. Aromatherapy hand massage for older adults with chronic pain living in long-term care. – PubMed – NCBI
10. A Systematic Review of Essential Oils and the Endocannabinoid System – A Connection Worthy of Further Exploration – 2020
11. Human olfactory receptors – novel cellular functions outside of the nose,” – 2017
12. The diversified function and potential therapy of ectopic olfactory receptors in non-olfactory tissues – PubMed – 2017
13. How does your kidney smell? Emerging roles for olfactory receptors in renal function,” – 2017

 

 

Terpenes – Overviews

1. Therapeutic and Medicinal Uses of Terpenes – 2019
2. Terpenes:Terpenoids in Cannabis – Are They Important? – 2020
3. Advances in Pharmacological Activities of Terpenoids – 2020
4. Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant – 2020
5. The Cannabis Terpenes – 2020
6. The “Entourage Effect” – Terpenes Coupled with Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – 2020
7. Cannabis Essential Oil – A Preliminary Study for the Evaluation of the Brain Effects – 2018
8. A Systematic Review of Essential Oils and the Endocannabinoid System – A Connection Worthy of Further Exploration – 2020
9. Efficacy of Essential Oils in Pain – A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Evidence – 2021

Essential Oils – Animals

1. Essential Oils and Animals – Which Essential Oils Are Toxic to Pets?
2. Essential Oils and Pets
3. Herbs and Their Uses for Animals – Patchouli and Pets

 

Aromatherapy – Routes of Use:

1. The Effects of Essential Oils and Terpenes in Relation to Their Routes of Intake and Application – 2020
2. Antiviral effect of phytochemicals from medicinal plants – Applications and drug delivery strategies – 2020
3. Cannabinoid Delivery Systems for Pain and Inflammation Treatment – 2018

Aromatherapy – Topical

1. Massage with or without aromatherapy for symptom relief in people with cancer. – PubMed – NCBI

Aromatherapy – Olfactory Receptors

1. Activation of intestinal olfactory receptor stimulates glucagon- like peptide-1 secretion in enteroendocrine cells and attenuates hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetic mice – 2017
2. Human olfactory receptors – novel cellular functions outside of the nose,” – 2017
3. How does your kidney smell? Emerging roles for olfactory receptors in renal function,” – 2017
4. The diversified function and potential therapy of ectopic olfactory receptors in non-olfactory tissues – PubMed – 2017

 

Terpenes – Synergy with Cannabinoids:

1. Taming THC – potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects – 2011
2. A tale of two cannabinoids: the therapeutic rationale for combining tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol. – PubMed – NCBI
3. Entourage Effect 2.0
4. Cannabis and the Anxiety of Fragmentation—A Systems Approach for Finding an Anxiolytic Cannabis Chemotype – 2018
5. Terpenoids and Phytocannabinoids Co-Produced in Cannabis Sativa Strains Show Specific Interaction for Cell Cytotoxic Activity – 2019
6. Absence of Entourage – Terpenoids Commonly Found in Cannabis sativa Do Not Modulate the Functional Activity of Δ9-THC at Human CB1 and CB2 Receptors – 2019
7. Terpenoids From Cannabis Do Not Mediate an Entourage Effect by Acting at Cannabinoid Receptors – 2020
8. The “Entourage Effect” – Terpenes Coupled with Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – 2020

 

Terpenes – Marijuana Strains

1. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
2. Terpenoid Chemoprofiles Distinguish Drug-type Cannabis sativa L. Cultivars in Nevada – 2018
3. Terpenoids and Phytocannabinoids Co-Produced in Cannabis Sativa Strains Show Specific Interaction for Cell Cytotoxic Activity – 2019
4. Identification of Terpenoid Chemotypes Among High (−)-trans-Δ9- Tetrahydrocannabinol-Producing Cannabis sativa L. Cultivars 0 2017
5. The Cannabinoid Content of Legal Cannabis in Washington State Varies Systematically Across Testing Facilities and Popular Consumer Products – 2018

 

Terpenes – Bioavailability

1. Bioavailability and Pharmacokinetics of Natural Volatile Terpenes in Animals and Humans – 2000
2. Bioavailability of Bioactive Compounds
3. SPC Liposomes as Possible Delivery Systems for Improving Bioavailability of the Natural Sesquiterpene β-Caryophyllene – 2018

 

Therapeutic Benefits

Terpenes – Arthritis

1. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015

 

Terpenes – Anxiety

1. Cannabis and the Anxiety of Fragmentation—A Systems Approach for Finding an Anxiolytic Cannabis Chemotype – 2018
2. The “Entourage Effect”: Terpenes Coupled With Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – PubMed – 2019
3. Medicinal cannabis for psychiatric disorders – a clinically-focused systematic review – 2020
4. A Systematic Review of the Anxiolytic-Like Effects of Essential Oils in Animal Models – 2015
5. A Systematic Review on the Anxiolytic Effect of Aromatherapy during the First Stage of Labor – 2019
6. A Systematic Review on the Anxiolytic Effectsof Aromatherapy in People with Anxiety Symptoms – 2011
7. Anxiolytic Terpenoids and Aromatherapy for Anxiety and Depression – PubMed – 2020
8. Effect of Aromatherapy on Dental Anxiety Among Orthodontic Patients – A Randomized Controlled Trial – 2019
9. Essential Oils and Their Constituents – An Alternative Source for Novel Antidepressants – 2017
10. Essential Oils and Their Constituents Targeting the GABAergic System and Sodium Channels as Treatment of Neurological Diseases – 2018
11. Possible Use of Phytochemicals for Recovery from COVID-19-Induced Anosmia and Ageusia – 2021
12. The calming effect of roasted coffee aroma in patients undergoing dental procedures – 2021
13. The Effect of Lavender Aroma on Anxiety of Patients Having Bone Marrow Biopsy- 2020
14. The-Effects-of-Essential-Oils-and-Terpenes-in-Relation-to-Their-Routes-of-Intake-and-Application-2020
15. Therapeutic Effect and Mechanisms of Essential Oils in Mood Disorders – Interaction between the Nervous and Respiratory Systems – 2021
16. Anxiolytic-Like Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil Are Insensitive to Flumazenil in Rats – 2019
17. Essential oils for treating anxiety- a systematic review of randomized controlled trials and network meta-analysis – 2023
18. The Efficacy of Aromatherapy on Pain and Anxiety During Needle-Related Procedures in Adults- A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis – 2025
19. Safety, Efficacy, and Mechanistic Studies Regarding Citrus aurantium (Bitter Orange) Extract and p‐Synephrine – 2017
20. Treatise Smmary – Phytochemical Modulators of Nociception- A Review of Cannabis Terpenes in Chronic Pain Syndromes

 

Terpenes – Infectious Diseases

1. Phytochemical Analysis and in vitro Antiviral Activities of the Essential Oils of Seven Lebanon Species – 2008
2. Antiviral effect of phytochemicals from medicinal plants – Applications and drug delivery strategies – 2020
3. Essential Oils and Coronaviruses – 2020

 

Terpenes – Pain:

1. Analgesic-like Activity of Essential Oils Constituents – 2011
2. Analgesic-Like Activity of Essential Oil Constituents – An Update – 2017
3. Medicinal Plants of the Family Lamiaceae in Pain Therapy – A Review – 2018
4. Analgesic Potential of Essential Oils – 2016
5. Medicinal Plants of the Family Lamiaceae in Pain Therapy – A Review – 2018
6. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
7. Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant – 2020
8.  The Molecular Mechanisms That Underpin the Biological Benefits of Full-Spectrum Cannabis Extract in the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain and Inflammation – PubMed – 2020
9. Cannabis-based medicines and the perioperative physician – 2019
10. Cannabis‐based medicines for chronic neuropathic pain in adults – 2018
11. Medicinal Properties of Cannabinoids, Terpenes, and Flavonoids in Cannabis, and Benefits in Migraine, Headache, and Pain – An Update on Current Evidence and Cannabis Science – 2018
12. Role of Cannabinoids and Terpenes in Cannabis-Mediated Analgesia in Rats – PubMed – 2019
13. Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice – 2018
14. Analgesic Potential of Essential Oils – 2016
15. Analgesic-Like Activity of Essential Oil Constituents – An Update – 2017
16. Aromatherapy hand massage for older adults with chronic pain living in long-term care. – PubMed – NCBI
17. The Efficacy of Aromatherapy on Pain and Anxiety During Needle-Related Procedures in Adults- A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis – 2025
18. Efficacy of Essential Oils in Relieving Cancer Pain- A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis – 2023
19. New approaches to the effectiveness of inhalation aromatherapy in controlling painful conditions_ A systematic review with meta-analysis – PubMed – 2022

20. References

    1. Lavandula Angustifolia Essential Oil Inhalation Reduces Mechanical Hyperalgesia in a Model of Inflammatory and Neuropathic Pain: The Involvement of Opioid and Cannabinoid Receptors. Donatello NN, Emer AA, Salm DC, et al. Journal of Neuroimmunology. 2020;340:577145. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2020.577145.

    2. Efficacy of Essential Oils in Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Evidence. Scuteri D, Hamamura K, Sakurada T, et al. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2021;12:640128. doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.640128.

    3. Rational Basis for the Use of Bergamot Essential Oil in Complementary Medicine to Treat Chronic Pain. Rombolà L, Amantea D, Russo R, et al. Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 2016;16(9):721-8. doi:10.2174/1389557516666160321113913.

    4. Essential Oils for Clinical Aromatherapy: A Comprehensive Review. Vora LK, Gholap AD, Hatvate NT, et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2024;330:118180. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2024.118180.

    5. The Effectiveness of Nurse-Delivered Aromatherapy in an Acute Care Setting. Johnson JR, Rivard RL, Griffin KH, et al. Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2016;25:164-9. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2016.03.006.

    6. Essential Oils and Neuropathic Pain. Ridouh I, Hackshaw KV. Plants (Basel, Switzerland). 2022;11(14):1797. doi:10.3390/plants11141797.

    7. A Comprehensive Review on Clinically Proven Natural Products in the Management of Nerve Pain, With Mechanistic Insights. Dewanjee S, Sohel M, Hossain MS, et al. Heliyon. 2023;9(5):e15346. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15346.

    8. Alleviating Effect of Lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia) and Its Major Components on Postherpetic Pain: A Randomized Blinded Controlled Trial. You J, Shin YK, Seol GH. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 2024;24(1):54. doi:10.1186/s12906-024-04362-z.

    9. Anti-Neuropathic Pain Mechanistic Study on  Essential Oil, Precocene II, Caryophyllene, or Longifolene as Single Agents and in Combination With Pregabalin. Sukmawan YP, Anggadiredja K, Adnyana IK. CNS & Neurological Disorders Drug Targets. 2023;22(6):924-931. doi:10.2174/1871527321666220418121329.

    10. Aromatherapy and Essential Oils: Holistic Strategies in Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Integral Wellbeing. Caballero-Gallardo K, Quintero-Rincón P, Olivero-Verbel J. Plants (Basel, Switzerland). 2025;14(3):400. doi:10.3390/plants14030400.

 

 

Terpenes – Headaches:

1.  Medicinal Properties of Cannabinoids, Terpenes, and Flavonoids in Cannabis, and Benefits in Migraine, Headache, and Pain – An Update on Current Evidence and Cannabis Science – 2018
2. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018

 

Terpenes – Inflammation:

1. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015 
2. Cannabis sativa L. and Nonpsychoactive Cannabinoids – Their Chemistry and Role against Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Cancer – 2018
3. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
4. Therapeutic Potential of Volatile Terpenes and Terpenoids from Forests for Inflammatory Diseases – 2020
5.  The Molecular Mechanisms That Underpin the Biological Benefits of Full-Spectrum Cannabis Extract in the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain and Inflammation – PubMed – 2020
6. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015
7. Cannabis, Cannabinoids, and the Endocannabinoid System—Is there Therapeutic Potential for Inflammatory Bowel Disease? – 2019
8. Therapeutic Applications of Terpenes on Inflammatory Diseases – 2021

 

Terpenes – Neuroprotective

1. Essential Oils as a Potential Neuroprotective Remedy for Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases- A Review – 2021
2. Essential oils for clinical aromatherapy- A comprehensive review – 2024
3. Aromatherapy_ Historical, Phytochemical Insights, and Therapeutic Applications _
4. Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Essential Oils on the Central Nervous System
5. Aromatherapy and Essential Oils- Holistic Strategies in Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Integral Wellbeing – 2022
6. The Effectiveness of Aromatherapy in Reducing Pain- A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis – 2016

Terpenes – Wound Healing:

1. Beta-caryophyllene enhances wound healing through multiple routes – 2019

 

 

 Individual Essential Oils and Terpenes

 

Terpenes – Bergamot

1. The Anxiolytic Effect of Aromatherapy on Patients Awaiting Ambulatory Surgery – A Randomized Controlled Trial – 2013
2. Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice – 2018
3. Anxiolytic-Like Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil Are Insensitive to Flumazenil in Rats – 2019
4. Bergamot – Natural Medicines – Professional.pdf
5. Citrus bergamia essential oil – from basic research to clinical application – 2015
6. Role of 5-HT1A Receptor in the Anxiolytic-Relaxant Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil in Rodent – 2020 Neuropharmacological Properties of the Essential Oil of Bergamot for the Clinical Management of Pain-Related BPSDs – PubMed – 2019
7. Possible involvement of the peripheral Mu-opioid system in antinociception induced by bergamot essential oil to allodynia after peripheral nerve injury – PubMed – 2018
8. Peripherally injected linalool and bergamot essential oil attenuate mechanical allodynia via inhibiting spinal ERK phosphorylation – PubMed – 2013
9. Neuropharmacology of the essential oil of bergamot – PubMed – 2010
10. Effect of Harvesting Time on Volatile Compounds Composition of Bergamot (Citrus × Bergamia) Essential Oil – 2019
11. Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Essential Oils from Peels of Three Citrus Species – 2020
12. Chemical_Composition_of_Bergamot_Citrus_Bergamia_Risso_Essential_Oil_Obtained_by_Hydrodistillation – 2010
13. Cannabinoid Signaling in the Skin – Therapeutic Potential of the “C(ut)annabinoid” System – 2019
14. Rational Basis for the Use of Bergamot Essential Oil in Complementary Medicine to Treat Chronic Pain – PubMed – 2016

 

Essential Oils – Lavender Oil and Linalool

1. Chemical Composition of Two Different Lavender Essential Oils and Their Effect on Facial Skin Microbiota – 2019
2. GS12-linalool
3. Linalool – 1997
4. The “Entourage Effect”: Terpenes Coupled With Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – PubMed – 2020
5. An olfactory stimulus modifies nighttime sleep in young men and women. – PubMed – NCBI
6. Lavender and sleep – A systematic review of the evidence – 2012
7. Lavender and the Nervous System – 2013
8. Effects of odorant administration on objective and subjective measures of sleep quality, post-sleep mood and alertness, and cognitive performance – 2003
9. In-vitro inhibition of human erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase by salvia lavandulaefolia essential oil and constituent terpenes. – PubMed – NCBI – 2000
10. Odors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleep – 2016
11. A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust – 2015
12. Is Lavender an Anxiolytic Drug? A Systematic Review of Randomised Clinical Trials – 2012
13. Efficacy of Silexan in subthreshold anxiety – meta-analysis of randomised, placebo-controlled trials – 2019
14. Essential oil of lavender in anxiety disorders – Ready for prime time? – 2017
15. Linalool is a PPAR ligand that reduces plasma TG levels and rewires the hepatic transcriptome and plasma metabolome – 2014
16. A Review of the Potential Use of Pinene and Linalool as Terpene-Based Medicines for Brain Health – Discovering Novel Therapeutics in the Flavours and Fragrances of Cannabis – 2021
17. The Efficacy of Lavender Aromatherapy in Reducing Preoperative Anxiety in Ambulatory Surgery Patients Undergoing Procedures in General Otolaryngology – 2017
18. Efficacy, Safety and Tolerability of Aroma Massage with Lavender Essential Oil – an Overview – 2020
19. Antinociceptive and anticonvulsant effects of the monoterpene linalool oxide – 2017
20. Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) Essential Oil on Central Nervous System Targets – 2017
21. Linalool Ameliorates Memory Loss and Behavioral Impairment Induced by REM-Sleep Deprivation through the Serotonergic Pathway – 2018
22. Effects of lavender on anxiety, depression and physiologic parameters – Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis – 2021
23. Lavender and sleep – A systematic review of the evidence – 2012
24. Lavender and the Nervous System – 2013
25. A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust – 2015

 

Aromaherapy – Sleep

1. Effects of odorant administration on objective and subjective measures of sleep quality, post-sleep mood and alertness, and cognitive performance – 2003
2. An Olfactory Stimulus Modifies Nighttime Sleep in Young Men and Women – 2005
3. Reactivating memories during sleep by odors – odor speci city and associated changes in sleep oscillations – 2014
4. Odors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleep – 2016
5. Increasing Explicit Sequence Knowledge by Odor Cueing during Sleep in Men but not Women – 2016

 

Essential Oils – Sage

1. Essential oils produced by in vitro shoots of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) – PubMed – 2003

 

Individual Terpenes

Terpenes: β-Caryophyllene:

1. (−)-β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 Receptor-Selective Phytocannabinoid, Suppresses Motor Paralysis and Neuroinflammation in a Murine Model of Multiple Sclerosis – 2017
2. Antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice. – PubMed – NCBI
3. Acute administration of beta-caryophyllene prevents endocannabinoid system activation during transient common carotid artery occlusion and reperfusion – 2018
4. Antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice. – PubMed – NCBI
5. Cannabimimetic phytochemicals in the diet – an evolutionary link to food selection and metabolic stress adaptation? – 2016
6. The anxiolytic-like effect of an essential oil derived from Spiranthera odoratissima A. St. Hil. leaves and its major component, β-caryophyllene, in male mice – 2012
7. β‐caryophyllene and β‐caryophyllene oxide—natural compounds of anticancer and analgesic properties – 2016
8. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice – 2014
9. Toxicological Evaluation of β-Caryophyllene Oil: Subchronic Toxicity in Rats. – PubMed – NCBI 2016
10. The cannabinoid CB₂ receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic… – PubMed – NCBI – 2014
11. The cannabinoid CB2 receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain – 2013
12. SPC Liposomes as Possible Delivery Systems for Improving Bioavailability of the Natural Sesquiterpene β-Caryophyllene – 2018
13. β-Caryophyllene Inhibits Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice through CB2 Receptor Activation and PPARγ Pathway – 2011
14. Why wild giant pandas frequently roll in horse manure – 2020
15. Beta-caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid – 2008
16. Analgesia mediated by the TRPM8 cold receptor in chronic neuropathic pain. – 2006
17. The menthol receptor TRPM8 is the principal detector of environmental cold – PubMed – 2007
18. Molecular basis of peripheral innocuous cold sensitivity – 2018
19. Involvement of peripheral cannabinoid and opioid receptors in β-caryophyllene-induced antinociception – PubMed – 2013
20. NON-CANNABIS THERAPY – Cannabinoid Therapy Without Using Cannabis: Direct Effects™ Topical β-Caryophyllene

 

Terpenes: Linalool:

1. GS12-linalool
2. Linalool – 1997
3. The “Entourage Effect”: Terpenes Coupled With Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – PubMed – 2020
4. An olfactory stimulus modifies nighttime sleep in young men and women. – PubMed – NCBI
5. Lavender and sleep – A systematic review of the evidence – 2012
6. Lavender and the Nervous System – 2013
7. Effects of odorant administration on objective and subjective measures of sleep quality, post-sleep mood and alertness, and cognitive performance – 2003
8. In-vitro inhibition of human erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase by salvia lavandulaefolia essential oil and constituent terpenes. – PubMed – NCBI – 2000
9. Odors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleep – 2016
10. A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust – 2015
11. Is Lavender an Anxiolytic Drug? A Systematic Review of Randomised Clinical Trials – 2012
12. Efficacy of Silexan in subthreshold anxiety – meta-analysis of randomised, placebo-controlled trials – 2019
13. Essential oil of lavender in anxiety disorders – Ready for prime time? – 2017
14. Linalool is a PPAR ligand that reduces plasma TG levels and rewires the hepatic transcriptome and plasma metabolome – 2014
15. A Review of the Potential Use of Pinene and Linalool as Terpene-Based Medicines for Brain Health – Discovering Novel Therapeutics in the Flavours and Fragrances of Cannabis – 2021
16. The Efficacy of Lavender Aromatherapy in Reducing Preoperative Anxiety in Ambulatory Surgery Patients Undergoing Procedures in General Otolaryngology – 2017
17. Efficacy, Safety and Tolerability of Aroma Massage with Lavender Essential Oil – an Overview – 2020
18. Antinociceptive and anticonvulsant effects of the monoterpene linalool oxide – 2017
19. Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) Essential Oil on Central Nervous System Targets – 2017
20. Linalool Ameliorates Memory Loss and Behavioral Impairment Induced by REM-Sleep Deprivation through the Serotonergic Pathway – 2018
21. Effects of lavender on anxiety, depression and physiologic parameters – Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis – 2021
22. Lavender and sleep – A systematic review of the evidence – 2012
23. Lavender and the Nervous System – 2013
24. A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust – 2015

 

 

Terpenes, Linalool: – Silexan

1. A Multi-Center, Double-Blind, Randomised Study of the Lavender Oil Preparation Silexan in Comparison to Lorazepam for Generalized Anxiety Disorder – 2010
2. Is Lavender an Anxiolytic Drug? A Systematic Review of Randomised Clinical Trials – 2012
3.  An Orally Administered Lavandula Oil Preparation (Silexan) for Anxiety Disorder and Related Conditions- An Evidence Based Review – 2013
4. Lavender oil preparation Silexan is effective in generalized anxiety disorder – a randomized, double-blind comparison to placebo and paroxetine – 2014
5. Silexan in anxiety disorders – Clinical data and pharmacological background – 2017
6. Effectiveness of Silexan Oral Lavender Essential Oil Compared to Inhaled Lavender Essential Oil Aromatherapy for Sleep in Adults- A Systematic Review – 2018
7. Silexan in anxiety disorders Clinical data and pharmacological background – PubMed – 2018
8. Efficacy and safety of lavender essential oil (Silexan) capsules among patients suffering from anxiety disorders – A network meta-analysis – 2019
9. Efficacy of Silexan in subthreshold anxiety – meta-analysis of randomised, placebo-controlled trials – 2019
10. Therapeutic effects of Silexan on somatic symptoms and physical health in patients with anxiety disorders – A meta- analysis – 2020
11. Silexan, an orally administered Lavandula oil preparation, is effective in the treatment of ‘subsyndromal’ anxiety disorder a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial – PubMed – 2010
12. A multi-center, double-blind, randomised study of the Lavender oil preparation Silexan in comparison to Lorazepam for generalized anxiety disorder – PubMed – 2009
13. No Abuse Potential of Silexan in Healthy Recreational Drug Users – A Randomized Controlled Trial – 2021

 

Terpenes – Limonene

1. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015
2. Neuroprotective Potential of Limonene and Limonene Containing Natural Products – 2021

 

Terpenes: Myrcene

1. β-MYRCENE – IARC MONOGRAPHS
2. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015

 

Terpenes: Pinene

1. A Review of the Potential Use of Pinene and Linalool as Terpene-Based Medicines for Brain Health – Discovering Novel Therapeutics in the Flavours and Fragrances of Cannabis – 2021

 

Aromztherpy – Pharmacological Mechanisms

1. Exploring Pharmacological Mechanisms of Essential Oils on the Central Nervous System – 2021
2. A Systematic Review of Essential Oils and the Endocannabinoid System – A Connection Worthy of Further Exploration – 2020

 

Medical Marijuana – Product Evaluation

1. The Cannabinoid Content of Legal Cannabis in Washington State Varies Systematically Across Testing Facilities and Popular Consumer Products – 2018
2. Quality Control of Traditional Cannabis Tinctures – Pattern, Markers, and Stability – 2016
3. Cannabinoid, Terpene, and Heavy Metal Analysis of 29 Over-the-Counter Commercial Veterinary Hemp Supplements – 2020

 

Emphasis on Education

 

Accurate Clinic promotes patient education as the foundation of it’s medical care. In Dr. Ehlenberger’s integrative approach to patient care, including conventional and complementary and alternative medical (CAM) treatments, he may encourage or provide advice about the use of supplements. However, the specifics of choice of supplement, dosing and duration of treatment should be individualized through discussion with Dr. Ehlenberger. The following information and reference articles are presented to provide the reader with some of the latest research to facilitate evidence-based, informed decisions regarding the use of conventional as well as CAM treatments.

 

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Should you wish more information regarding any of the subjects listed – or not listed –  here, please contact Dr. Ehlenberger. He has literally thousands of published articles to share on hundreds of topics associated with pain management, weight loss, nutrition, addiction recovery and emergency medicine. It would take years for you to read them, as it did him.

 

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