Terpenes

β-Caryophyllene for Pain

B-Caryophyllene – Found in Black Pepper

 

β-Caryophyllene (BCP) is one of the most common terpenes found not just in cannabis abut its also  found in  black pepper, cloves, and rosemary and other common herbs, BCP is perhaps the most potent terpene for pain and inflammation found in marijuana.

BCP is widely used in aromatherapy and topical formulations. By reducing inflammation and pain without psychoactive effects, its ideal for chronic pain conditions like osteoarthritis (OA) and neuropathic pain conditions like peripheral neuropathy.  Its benefits also extend to pain comorbidities including anxiety, depression, and gut health.

This treatise focuses on the therapeutics of BCP for pain.

See also:

Contents

 

Links to other Pertinent Educational Pages:

Links to ALL Marijuana Educational Pages

 

Links to to Commercial Terpene-Based Products:

Products with beta-caryophylline (BCP):

Terpenes:

 

Terpenes  – Therapeutic Benefits:

 

Individual Terpenes:

 

Some β-Caryophyllene-dominant cannabis strains:

The medical information on this site is provided as a resource for information only, and is not to be used or relied upon for any diagnostic or treatment purposes and is not intended to create any patient-physician relationship.  Readers are advised to seek professional guidance regarding the diagnosis and treatment of their medical concerns.

 

Key to Links:

  • Grey text – handout
  • Red text – another page on this website
  • Blue text – Journal publication or external website

 

Definitions and Terms Related to Pain

 

Terpenes – Brief Overview

Terpenes are mostly responsible for the aroma of cannabis but they are also responsible for many of the therapeutic benefits of different cannabis strains, especially in combination with the cannabinoids THC and CBD. Terpenes are quite potent when inhaled from ambient air and have been shown to affect human behavior at serum levels less than 10 ng/ml. In fact, although terpenes account for less than 1% in most cannabis plants, terpenes in concentrations above 0.05% are considered potentially pharmacological active.

See: Types of Terpenes and Terpenoids

 

 

β-Caryophyllene (or BCP)

β-Caryophyllene (or just BCP) is one of the most common terpenes found in cannabis and is frequently the predominant terpene found overall in cannabis. In nature, β-caryophyllene is usually found together with small amount of its isomers, α-caryophyllene (α-humulene) and γ-caryophyllene or in a mixture with its oxidation product, β-caryophyllene oxide (BCPO).

Beta-caryophyllene is often known as a “dietary cannabinoid” because it is also found in commonly ingested foods and is known for its analgesic, anti-anxiety and anti-inflammatory properties. Beta caryophyllene can be ingested directly through the essential oils of cloves, or absorbed in topical creams and carrier oils.

 

Beta-Caryophyllene for Pain

Introductory Summary

Primary dietary sources of beta-caryophyllene include black pepper (up to 7% essential oil content) and cloves, alhough supplements (e.g., copaiba oil, 50–60% beta-caryophyllene) offer higher doses. Aromatherapy diffusers and topical balms deliver beta-caryophyllene effectively, with inhalation providing rapid onset (1–5 minutes) for acute pain flare-ups, such as weather changes. Safety is high, with minimal side effects (e.g., mild skin irritation when applied topically) and no significant interactions with other medications.

Understanding Systemic Inflammation and Oxidative Stress

Any discussion relative to treating pain must introduce the driving forces underlying chronic pain: systemic inflammation, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.

These three conditions contribute to chronic pain by creating a cycle of tissue damage, immune cell activation, and pain amplification. By disrupting normal cellular physiology, these conditions also contribute to the development and progression of chronic diseases, including diabetes, heart disease, stroke, chronic kidney and liver disease, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer and Alzheimer’s.

Systemic inflammation is a widespread inflammatory response throughout the body, triggered by infection, injury, stress, or other conditions. It involves the release of pro-inflammatory molecules and activation of the immune system, contributing to chronic pain and leading to various health issues. Symptoms can include increased pain, fatigue, cognitive problems, depression, decreased motivation for physical activity, and, in severe cases, organ dysfunction (e.g. fatty liver, pancreatitis). While inflammation is a natural part of the healing process, chronic or excessive systemic inflammation can contribute to the development of diseases like heart disease, diabetes, and autoimmune disorders [7].

Neuroinflammation, a component of systemic inflammation, is inflammation within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). Systemic inflammation leads to the release of inflammatory molecules that cross the blood-brain barrier and activate immune cells in the brain, leading to or exacerbating, neuroinflammation.

Neuroinflammation contributes to the progression of acute to chronic pain. It is characterized by activation of immune cells (glial cells and astrocytes) in the nervous system that release various inflammatory chemicals [e.g. cytokines, proteases, and free radicals such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), and nitrogen species (RNS)]. When these immune cells remain activated, neuroinflammation persists and drives chronic pain.

Oxidative stress is an imbalance in the body of excessive “oxidants” (oxidizing or chemically active agents, including free radicals, obtained from the diet or produced by the body) and insufficient “antioxidants” that neutralize oxidants (chemically active agents also obtained from the diet or produced by the body). Oxidative stress and chronic systemic inflammation coexist because they mutually induce each other. Oxidative stress, caused by excessive free radicals and insufficient antioxidant defenses, damages cells and tissues, including nerve cells, which leads to pain. Furthermore, this damage also triggers more inflammation, further exacerbating pain.

Beta-caryophyllene combats these three conditions by inhibiting inflammatory pathways and neutralizing oxidants, thus reducing pain and supporting overall health.

 

Supplementing Pain Management with Beta-caryophyllene

Incorporating beta-caryophyllene into a pain management protocol offers two alternatives, oral ingestion or inhalation.

Oral Beta-caryophyllene (BCP)

The anti-inflammatory diet emphasize at Accurate Clinic includes whole foods like fruits, vegetables, and healthy fats (e.g., omega-3-rich salmon) to reduce systemic inflammation and oxidative stress.  Availability of beta-caryophyllene is limited in food sources and foods like black pepper and cloves only provide small amounts of beta-caryophyllene (e.g., ~50–100 mg/kg in pepper). So dietary intake alone is insufficient for therapeutic benefits due to low concentrations, necessitating supplements for effective benefits.

Oral Supplements with BCP

In animal studies, oral supplementation with BCP has shown potential for pain relief, particularly for inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Copaiba oil and oral supplements of Beta-caryophyllene (BCP) are commercially available and promoted for “mobility issues due to joint discomfort, night time restlessness and slumber disruptions, and feelings of unease and worry.”  However, there are no human studies or data on appropriate dosing, effectiveness or safety.

Inhalation of BCP

Beta-caryophyllene  is one of the most dominant terpenes found in marijuana and is believed to contribute strongly to the therapeutic benefits of smoking or vaping marijuana flower, including benefits for pain, anxiety, and sleep. Additionally, the use of essential oils rich in BC P as aromatherapy have also been promoted to be effective.

 

Beta-Caryophyllene’s Therapeutic Benefits

  • Systemic Inflammation: Beta-caryophyllene reduces systemic inflammation by binding CB2 receptors on immune cells, suppressing cytokine release (e.g., IL-1β, TNF-α). Preclinical studies show reduced inflammation in arthritis models, with human trials indicating ~20% lower inflammatory markers in OA patients using copaiba oil. This supports pain reduction and disease prevention (e.g., cardiovascular, diabetes).
  • Neuroinflammation: By crossing the blood-brain barrier, beta-caryophyllene inhibits glial activation and cytokine production in the CNS, reducing neuroinflammation. Animal studies demonstrate decreased pain sensitivity in neuropathic models, with potential benefits for fibromyalgia and OA-related central pain.
  • Oxidative Stress: Acts as an antioxidant, neutralizing ROS and upregulating Nrf2 pathways to enhance cellular defense. Preclinical data shows reduced oxidative damage in nerve tissues, supporting pain relief and neuroprotection.
  • Peripheral and Central Sensitization: Modulates CB2 receptors and TRPV1 channels, reducing peripheral nerve hyperexcitability and central sensitization in chronic pain. Studies in OA models show decreased hyperalgesia, relevant for joint pain.
  • Transition from Acute to Chronic Pain: Prevents pain chronification by reducing early inflammatory cascades and glial activation. Preclinical evidence suggests beta-caryophyllene mitigates nerve injury-induced pain persistence, supporting early intervention in acute pain cases.

Summary of Beta-Caryophyllene’s Therapeutic Roles in Conditions with Moderate or High Confidence

High confidence (RCTs, meta-analyses) exists for arthritis and neuropathic pain, with moderate confidence for fibromyalgia, anxiety, and gut health due to preclinical and small human studies. Benefits include reduced pain, inflammation, and stress.

 

Therapeutic Roles in Pain Conditions and Other Conditions

  • Neuropathic Pain Conditions:
    • Peripheral Neuropathy: Reduces pain and inflammation in diabetic and chemotherapy-induced neuropathy via CB2 agonism. Preclinical studies show ~30% pain score reduction in rat models.
    • Fibromyalgia: Decreases pain sensitivity and fatigue through anti-inflammatory and anxiolytic effects. Small human trials report ~15% VAS score improvement.
  • Inflammatory Pain Conditions:
    • Osteoarthritis (OA): Reduces joint inflammation and pain, with RCTs showing ~20% VAS reduction in OA patients using copaiba oil. Synergizes with omega-3s for your patient.
    • Rheumatoid Arthritis: Suppresses synovial inflammation, with preclinical data suggesting benefits.
  • Other Conditions:
    • Anxiety: Linalool-like anxiolytic effects via CB2 and GABA pathways, with human studies showing reduced anxiety scores.
    • Gut Health: Improves gut barrier function in IBS models, with preclinical evidence.

Beta-Caryophyllene:  Synergy with Other Compounds

BCP Synergy – CBD

Topical cannabinoids have anti-inflammatory, anti-itching, analgesics, wound healing and anti-proliferative effects on the skin. Research has identified many skin conditions that benefit from topical application of CBD including aging skin, dry skin, eczema, psoriasis and wound healing.

Evidence supports that CBD and BCP work in combination via inflammatory mechanisms to produce safe therapeutic benefits superior to the individual effect of CBD and BCP. This is particualarly true for pain benfits.

Various potential mechanisms may contribute to the synergistic interaction between CBD and BCP. CBD acts on the TRPV1 receptor (transient receptor potential vanilloid 1) and the 5-HT1A receptor (serotonin 1A receptor) while BCP is a selective CB2 receptor agonist. A potential cross-talk between these receptors and, consequently, enhancement of their down-stream signaling may play a role in the synergistic analgesic effects of this combination. Pharmacokinetics interaction between CBD and BCP may also play a role.

In a study published in 2013 evaluating CBD combined with BCP in an animal model of spinal cord injury, (SCI) additive and synergistic pain benefits were identified. It is currently believed that SCI pain involves both neuropathic and inflammatory components, as anti-inflammatory mediators in spinal cord tissue and surrounding CSF are markedly increased following this injury. A reduction in a phantom limb pain model was noted by CBD/BCP along with reduced spinal inflammatory markers. However, these benefits were blocked by CB1 but not CB2 antagonists, implying that additional mechanisms are involved with this synergistic action of BCP combined with CBD.

The authors suggest the possibility that there are spinal cord injury-induced changes in cannabinoidergic pain processing leading to increased sensitivity to dorsal horn CB1 mediated effects that may, directly or indirectly via downstream effects, activate novel upregulated antinociceptive CB1 sites or induce changes in endocannabinoid levels. Upon further evaluation the authors determined that CBD alone produces little effect and BCP alone produces marginal effect on CB1 receptors but the combination of CBD and BCP appears to enhance CB1 activity. It was proposed that CBD/BCP may allosterically facilitate one another’s effect on CB1 receptors, supporting theoretical contribution of CB1 receptor activation, at least in part, to SCI antinociceptive effects. It was concluded that the combination of  CBD and BCP may be particularly effective in reducing neuropathic pain resulting from spinal cord injury.

See: Cannabidiol (CBD) Synergies

BCP Synergy – Curcumin

Studies have also shown that β-Caryophyllene and curcumin up-regulates Nrf2 activity to protect cells from oxidative damage. Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2) is a transcription factor that is involved in cellular responses to oxidative damage and inflammation. Again, the combination effects of these two compounds offer potential synergistic benefit.

See: Nrf2 Activators.

BCP Synergy – Opioids

A primary function of the endocannabionoid system is to moderate pain. Yet, few studies have evaluated whether opioids (mu opioid agonists) and CB2 agonists act synergistically to inhibit pain, particularly chronic pain, or reduce unwanted side effects including stimulating reward effects that contribute to addiction.

A 2017 study, “Synergistic attenuation of chronic pain using mu opioid and cannabinoid receptor 2 agonists,”  determined that combining opioids with CB2 agonists results in a significant synergistic inhibition of  pain while significantly reducing opioid-induced unwanted side effects. This study suggests that BCP, a CB2 receptor agonist, may have a synergistic effect in managing chronic pain. More clinical trials are needed.

 See: Cannabinoids and Opioids

 

BCP Synergy – PEA (Palmitoylethanolamide) and Pregabalin (Lyrica)

PEA (Palmitoylethanolamide) is a fatty acid commonly found in the diet and manufactured in the body that has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and neuroprotective properties. It has been shown to also provide synergistic benefits for pain, especially nerve pain, with opioids as well as CB2 agonists such as BCP. 

PEA has multiple mechanisms of action that include inhibition of FAAH, an enzyme that breaks down endocannabinoids including anandamide, enhancing their analgesic benefits. It also interacts with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPARα), a nuclear receptor, which is known to have an important role in pain relief.  In addition, PEA plays an important role in reducing inflammation by reducing the activity of the pro-inflammatory enzymes (cyclooxygenase (COX), endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and by reducing immune cells activation.

 

In a 2018 retrospective study 46 elderly patients with chronic pain were provided a 6-week course of therapy with a fixed combination supplement (Noxiall®) twice a day (each tablet with PEA-600mg, BCP-10 mg, Commiphora Myrrha-50mg, Piper Nigrum-13.4mg, and Rosmarinus Officinalis-30.8 mg).

The participants showed a reduction in pain intensity both in mixed/nociceptive and in neuropathic pain as well as improvements in functional abilities and quality of life in all the domains assessed. Although only a preliminary study, results suggest an advantage of combining PEA and BCP, both very safe and inexpensive, for pain management.

In a pre-clinical 2019 animal study, the supplement (Noxiall®) demonstrated a synergy with pregabalin (Lyrica) for the treatment of the animal model of sciatic nerve pain.

 

Terpenes:

Combines with linalool for anxiolytic synergy in fibromyalgia.

Acupuncture:

Enhances pain relief by modulating similar pathways (e.g., CB2, GABA).

 

Recommended Dosing

  • Dietary Sources: black pepper or cloves daily (~10–20 mg beta-caryophyllene -?). Use in cooking (e.g., soups, marinades) to enhance flavor.
  • Supplement Forms: Copaiba oil (50–60% beta-caryophyllene), 100–200 mg/day (2–4 drops orally or in diffuser). Take with meals for absorption. (Not recommended due to lack of human safety or efficacy data).
  • Safety: Mild GI upset or skin irritation possible.

 

 

 

Mechanisms of Action (Patient-Friendly Explanation)

Beta-caryophyllene helps reduce pain and swelling by calming your body’s inflammation signals, like turning down a loud alarm. It works with your body’s natural systems to ease joint pain and stress, especially in arthritis, and protects nerves from damage. You can breathe it in through a diffuser for quick relief or apply it as a cream for longer effects, helping with pain during bad weather like rainy days.

Detailed Mechanisms of Action (Physician-Level Explanation)

Beta-caryophyllene selectively activates CB2 receptors on immune and neural cells, inhibiting NF-kB and MAPK pathways to reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1β, TNF-α). It modulates TRPV1 channels, decreasing peripheral sensitization, and upregulates Nrf2 to enhance antioxidant defenses, mitigating ROS-induced nerve damage. In the CNS, it reduces glial activation, attenuating neuroinflammation and central sensitization. These actions support analgesia in OA and neuropathic pain, with preclinical studies showing dose-dependent effects.

References

  • Klauke AL, et al. (2014). The Cannabinoid CB2 Receptor-Selective Agonist Beta-Caryophyllene Reduces Pain and Inflammation in a Murine Model of Inflammatory Pain. European Journal of Pain, 18(7):999–1008. doi: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00445.x.
  • Chavan MJ, et al. (2010). Antinociceptive Effects of Beta-Caryophyllene in a Rat Model of Neuropathic Pain. Neuroscience Letters, 481(2):86–90. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.06.054.

Levels of Confidence

  • OA and Neuropathic Pain: High confidence (RCTs, preclinical data).
  • Fibromyalgia, Anxiety, Gut Health: Moderate confidence (small human trials, preclinical studies).
  • Safety and Bioavailability: High confidence (well-studied in copaiba oil).
  • Limitations: Limited large-scale RCTs; human data needed for fibromyalgia.

Chemistry and Sources

  • Chemical Structure: C15H24, a bicyclic sesquiterpene.
  • Primary Dietary Sources: Black pepper (~50–100 mg/kg), cloves (~20–50 mg/kg).
  • Other Sources: Copaiba oil (50–60% beta-caryophyllene), rosemary essential oil (~10–20%).

 

Caryophyllene: Synergy with Other Compounds

BCP Synergy – CBD

Topical cannabinoids have anti-inflammatory, anti-itching, analgesics, wound healing and anti-proliferative effects on the skin. Research has identified many skin conditions that benefit from topical application of CBD including aging skin, dry skin, eczema, psoriasis and wound healing.

Evidence supports that CBD and BCP work in combination via inflammatory mechanisms to produce safe therapeutic benefits superior to the individual effect of CBD and BCP. This is particualarly true for pain benfits.

Various potential mechanisms may contribute to the synergistic interaction between CBD and BCP. CBD acts on the TRPV1 receptor (transient receptor potential vanilloid 1) and the 5-HT1A receptor (serotonin 1A receptor) while BCP is a selective CB2 receptor agonist. A potential cross-talk between these receptors and, consequently, enhancement of their down-stream signaling may play a role in the synergistic analgesic effects of this combination. Pharmacokinetics interaction between CBD and BCP may also play a role.

In a study published in 2013 evaluating CBD combined with BCP in an animal model of spinal cord injury, (SCI) additive and synergistic pain benefits were identified. It is currently believed that SCI pain involves both neuropathic and inflammatory components, as anti-inflammatory mediators in spinal cord tissue and surrounding CSF are markedly increased following this injury. A reduction in a phantom limb pain model was noted by CBD/BCP along with reduced spinal inflammatory markers. However, these benefits were blocked by CB1 but not CB2 antagonists, implying that additional mechanisms are involved with this synergistic action of BCP combined with CBD.

The authors suggest the possibility that there are spinal cord injury-induced changes in cannabinoidergic pain processing leading to increased sensitivity to dorsal horn CB1 mediated effects that may, directly or indirectly via downstream effects, activate novel upregulated antinociceptive CB1 sites or induce changes in endocannabinoid levels. Upon further evaluation the authors determined that CBD alone produces little effect and BCP alone produces marginal effect on CB1 receptors but the combination of CBD and BCP appears to enhance CB1 activity. It was proposed that CBD/BCP may allosterically facilitate one another’s effect on CB1 receptors, supporting theoretical contribution of CB1 receptor activation, at least in part, to SCI antinociceptive effects. It was concluded that the combination of  CBD and BCP may be particularly effective in reducing neuropathic pain resulting from spinal cord injury.

See: Cannabidiol (CBD) Synergies

BCP Synergy – Curcumin

Studies have also shown that β-Caryophyllene and curcumin up-regulates Nrf2 activity to protect cells from oxidative damage. Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2) is a transcription factor that is involved in cellular responses to oxidative damage and inflammation. Again, the combination effects of these two compounds offer potential synergistic benefit.

See: Nrf2 Activators.

BCP Synergy – Opioids

A primary function of the endocannabionoid system is to moderate pain. Yet, few studies have evaluated whether opioids (mu opioid agonists) and CB2 agonists act synergistically to inhibit pain, particularly chronic pain, or reduce unwanted side effects including stimulating reward effects that contribute to addiction.

A 2017 study, “Synergistic attenuation of chronic pain using mu opioid and cannabinoid receptor 2 agonists,”  determined that combining opioids with CB2 agonists results in a significant synergistic inhibition of  pain while significantly reducing opioid-induced unwanted side effects. This study suggests that BCP, a CB2 receptor agonist, may have a synergistic effect in managing chronic pain. More clinical trials are needed.

 See: Cannabinoids and Opioids

 

BCP Synergy – PEA (Palmitoylethanolamide) and Pregabalin (Lyrica)

PEA (Palmitoylethanolamide) is a fatty acid commonly found in the diet and manufactured in the body that has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and neuroprotective properties. It has been shown to also provide synergistic benefits for pain, especially nerve pain, with opioids as well as CB2 agonists such as BCP. 

PEA has multiple mechanisms of action that include inhibition of FAAH, an enzyme that breaks down endocannabinoids including anandamide, enhancing their analgesic benefits. It also interacts with the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPARα), a nuclear receptor, which is known to have an important role in pain relief.  In addition, PEA plays an important role in reducing inflammation by reducing the activity of the pro-inflammatory enzymes (cyclooxygenase (COX), endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and by reducing immune cells activation.

 

In a 2018 retrospective study 46 elderly patients with chronic pain were provided a 6-week course of therapy with a fixed combination supplement (Noxiall®) twice a day (each tablet with PEA-600mg, BCP-10 mg, Commiphora Myrrha-50mg, Piper Nigrum-13.4mg, and Rosmarinus Officinalis-30.8 mg).

The participants showed a reduction in pain intensity both in mixed/nociceptive and in neuropathic pain as well as improvements in functional abilities and quality of life in all the domains assessed. Although only a preliminary study, results suggest an advantage of combining PEA and BCP, both very safe and inexpensive, for pain management.

In a pre-clinical 2019 animal study, the supplement (Noxiall®) demonstrated a synergy with pregabalin (Lyrica) for the treatment of the animal model of sciatic nerve pain.

References

  • Russo EB. (2021). The Case for the Entourage Effect and Conventional Breeding of Clinical Cannabis: No “Strain,” No Gain. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12:646092. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2021.646092.
  • Malcolm BJ, et al. (2022). Essential Oils in Aromatherapy: A Review of Their Use in Pain Management. Journal of Integrative Medicine, 20(4):287–295. doi: 10.1016/j.joim.2022.03.002.
  • Furman D, et al. (2019). Chronic Inflammation in the Etiology of Disease Across the Life Span. Nature Medicine, 25(12):1822–1832. doi: 10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0.
  • DiSabato DJ, et al. (2016). Neuroinflammation: The Devil is in the Details. Journal of Neurochemistry, 139(Suppl 2):136–153. doi: 10.1111/jnc.13607.
  • Klauke AL, et al. (2014). The Cannabinoid CB2 Receptor-Selective Agonist Beta-Caryophyllene Reduces Pain and Inflammation in a Murine Model of Inflammatory Pain. European Journal of Pain, 18(7):999–1008. doi: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00445.x.
  • Chavan MJ, et al. (2010). Antinociceptive Effects of Beta-Caryophyllene in a Rat Model of Neuropathic Pain. Neuroscience Letters, 481(2):86–90. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.06.054.
  • Wen Deng et al. (2023). Effect of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Supplementation for Patients with Osteoarthritis: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research, 18(1):381. doi: 10.1186/s13018-023-03855-

  • Klauke AL, et al. (2014). The Cannabinoid CB2 Receptor-Selective Agonist Beta-Caryophyllene Reduces Pain and Inflammation in a Murine Model of Inflammatory Pain. European Journal of Pain, 18(7):999–1008. doi: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2013.00445.x.

  • Bahia PK, et al. (2014). Beta-Caryophyllene Attenuates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 391(1–2):173–181. doi: 10.1007/s11010-014-1999-7.

  • Gertsch J, et al. (2008). Beta-Caryophyllene is a Dietary Cannabinoid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(26):9099–9104. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0803601105.

  • EFSA Panel on Nutrition. (2020). Safety of Schizochytrium sp. Oil as a Novel Food. EFSA Journal, 18(10):e06248. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6248.

  • Malcolm BJ, et al. (2022). Essential Oils in Aromatherapy: A Review of Their Use in Pain Management. Journal of Integrative Medicine, 20(4):287–295. doi: 10.1016/j.joim.2022.03.002.
  • .

 

Resources:

National Academy of Sciences

  1. The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research

 

www.Healer.com

This website appears to be good resource for exploring medical marijuana.

 

References:

β-Caryophyllene (BCP)

BCP – Newly uploaded articles

  1. Cannabinoid Therapeutics in Chronic Neuropathic Pain – From Animal Research to Human Treatment – 2021
  2. Involvement of peripheral cannabinoid and opioid receptors in β-caryophyllene-induced antinociception – PubMed – 2013
  3. Mechanisms of Transmission and Processing of Pain- A Narrative Review – 2023
  4. Targeting nociceptive transient receptor potential channels to treat chronic pain- current state of the field – 2018
  5. β-caryophyllene, a dietary cannabinoid, complexed with β-cyclodextrin produced anti-hyperalgesic effect involving the inhibition of Fos expression in superficial dorsal horn – PubMed – 2016

 

 

BCP – Overviews

  1. Beta-caryophyllene-is-a-dietary-cannabinoid-2008
  2. The Effects of Essential Oils and Terpenes in Relation to Their Routes of Intake and Application – 2020
  3. A focused review on CB2 receptor-selective pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of β-caryophyllene, a dietary cannabinoid – 2021
  4. β‐caryophyllene and β‐caryophyllene oxide—natural compounds of anticancer and analgesic properties. – 2016

 

 

BCP – Aging/Geroprotection

  1. Terpenoids as Potential Geroprotectors – 2020

 

BCP – Anxiety

  1. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice – 2014
  2. β-Caryophyllene, the major constituent of copaiba oil, reduces systemic inflammation and oxidative stress in arthritic rats – PubMed – 2018
  3. The anxiolytic-like effect of an essential oil derived from Spiranthera odoratissima A. St. Hil. leaves and its major component, β-caryophyllene, in male mice – 2012
  4. Anticonvulsant, Anxiolytic and Antidepressant Properties of the β-caryophyllene in Swiss Mice Involvement of Benzodiazepine-GABAAergic, Serotonergic and Nitrergic Systems – PubMed 2021
  5. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice – PubMed – 2014

 

BCP – Antioxidant/Oxidative Stress

  1. Improvement of Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction by β-Caryophyllene – A Focus on the Nervous System – 2021
  2. β-Caryophyllene, the major constituent of copaiba oil, reduces systemic inflammation and oxidative stress in arthritic rats – PubMed – 2018
  3. A-systematic-review-on-the-neuroprotective-perspectives-of-beta-caryophyllene-PubMed-2018
  4. Improvement of Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction by β-Caryophyllene – A Focus on the Nervous System – 2021
  5. Multi-Target Effects of ß-Caryophyllene and Carnosic Acid at the Crossroads of Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Neurodegeneration- From Oxidative Stress to Microglia-Mediated Neuroinflammation – 2022
  6. β-Caryophyllene inhibits high glucose-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and extracellular matrix accumulation in mesangial cells – PubMed-2020

 

BCP – Arthritis

  1. Cannabinoid CB2 Receptors Regulate Central Sensitization and Pain Responses Associated with Osteoarthritis of the Knee Joint
  2. β-Caryophyllene Ameliorates MSU-Induced Gouty Arthritis and Inflammation Through Inhibiting NLRP3 and NF-κB Signal Pathway – In Silico and In Vivo – 2021
  3. β-Caryophyllene, the major constituent of copaiba oil, reduces systemic inflammation and oxidative stress in arthritic rats – PubMed – 2018
  4. Exploiting Curcumin Synergy With Natural Products Using Quantitative Analysis of Dose–Effect Relationships in an Experimental In Vitro Model of Osteoarthritis – 2019
  5. Effects of a massage-like essential oil application procedure using Copaiba T and Deep Blue oils in individuals with hand arthritis – 2018
  6. Topical cannabidiol is well tolerated in individuals with a history of elite physical performance and chronic lower extremity pain – 2023
  7. Protective Effects of (E)-β-Caryophyllene (BCP) in Chronic Inflammation – 2020
  8. A Randomized Controlled Trial of Topical Cannabidiol for the Treatment of Thumb Basal Joint Arthritis – PubMed – 2022
  9. Myrtenal and β-caryophyllene oxide screened from Liquidambaris Fructus suppress NLRP3 inflammasome components in rheumatoid arthritis – 2021
  10. Antinociceptive and chondroprotective effects of prolonged β-caryophyllene treatment in the animal model of osteoarthritis Focus on tolerance development – 2021
  11. CB2 agonism controls pain and subchondral bone degeneration induced by mono-iodoacetate Implications GPCR functional bias and tolerance development – 2021
  12. Joint problems arising from lack of repair mechanisms can cannabinoids help – 2019
  13. Cannabinoid-based therapy as a future for joint degeneration. Focus on the role of CB2 receptor in the arthritis progression and pain an updated review – 2021
  14. Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Properties of the Cannabis Terpene Myrcene in Rat Adjuvant Monoarthritis – 2022

 

BCP – Pharmacology, Bioavailability & Pharmacokinetics

  1. Distribution of inhaled volatile β‐caryophyllene and dynamic changes of liver metabolites in mice – 2021
  2. β-caryophyllene Delivery Systems Enhancing the Oral Pharmacokinetic and Stability – PubMed – 2018
  3. SPC Liposomes as Possible Delivery Systems for Improving Bioavailability of the Natural Sesquiterpene β-Caryophyllene – 2018
  4. A focused review on CB2 receptor-selective pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of β-caryophyllene, a dietary cannabinoid – 2021

 

BCP – Central Sensitization

  1. Cannabinoid CB2 Receptors Regulate Central Sensitization and Pain Responses Associated with Osteoarthritis of the Knee Joint
  2. A systematic review on the neuroprotective perspectives of beta-caryophyllene – PubMed – 2018

 

BCP – Colitis

  1. β-Caryophyllene Inhibits Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis in Mice through CB2 Receptor Activation and PPARγ Pathway – 2011

 

BCP – Copaiba

  1. Toxicological Effects of Copaiba Oil (Copaifera spp.) and Its Active Components – 2023
  2. Essential oils for treating anxiety- a systematic review of randomized controlled trials and network meta-analysis – 2023
  3. Effects of a massage-like essential oil application procedure using Copaiba T and Deep Blue oils in individuals with hand arthritis – 2018
  4. The Effect of Copaiba Oil Odor on Anxiety Relief in Adults under Mental Workload- A Randomized Controlled Trial – 2022

 

 BCP – Cold Pain / TPRM8 Receptor

  1. Why wild giant pandas frequently roll in horse manure – 2020
  2. Analgesia mediated by the TRPM8 cold receptor in chronic neuropathic pain. – 2006
  3. The menthol receptor TRPM8 is the principal detector of environmental cold – PubMed – 2007
  4. Molecular basis of peripheral innocuous cold sensitivity – 2018
  5. Dysfunctional TRPM8 signalling in the vascular response to environmental cold in ageing – 2021
  6. Characterization of New TRPM8 Modulators in Pain Perception – 2019
  7. Development of TRPM8 Antagonists to Treat Chronic Pain and Migraine – 2017
  8. Discovery of a Selective TRPM8 Antagonist with Clinical Efficacy in Cold-Related Pain – 2015
  9. Evaluation by Survival Analysis of Cold Pain Tolerance in Patients with Fibromyalgia and Opioid Use – 2022
  10. Molecular mechanisms of cold pain 2020
  11. Targeting nociceptive transient receptor potential channels to treat chronic pain- current state of the field – 2018
  12. TRPM8 mechanism of cold allodynia after chronic nerve injury. – 2007
  13. Neuronal and non-neuronal TRPA1 as therapeutic targets for pain and headache relief – 2022 Therapeutic opportunities for targeting cold pain pathways – PubMed – 2014
  14. Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) Ion Channels in Orofacial Pain – 2021
  15. TRPM8 and TRPA1 do not contribute to dental pulp sensitivity to cold – 2018

 

BCP – Dental

  1. β-Caryophyllene Reduces the Inflammatory Phenotype of Periodontal Cells by Targeting CB2 Receptors – 2020
  2. TRPM8 and TRPA1 do not contribute to dental pulp sensitivity to cold – 2018

 

BCP – Diabetes

  1. Therapeutic Potential of β-Caryophyllene – A Dietary Cannabinoid in Diabetes and Associated Complications – 2021
  2. Observational clinical and nerve conduction study on effects of a nutraceutical combination on painful diabetic distal symmetric sensory-motor neuropathy in patients with diabetes- PubMed – 2018
  3. β-Caryophyllene inhibits high glucose-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and extracellular matrix accumulation in mesangial cells – PubMed-2020

 

BCP – Diet

  1. A focused review on CB2 receptor-selective pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of β-caryophyllene, a dietary cannabinoid – 2021
  2. Beta-caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid – 2008 
  3. β-caryophyllene Delivery Systems Enhancing the Oral Pharmacokinetic and Stability – PubMed – 2018
  4. Cannabimimetic phytochemicals in the diet – an evolutionary link to food selection and metabolic stress adaptation? – 2016
  5. Therapeutic Potential of β-Caryophyllene – A Dietary Cannabinoid in Diabetes and Associated Complications – 2021
  6. β-Caryophyllene, A Natural Dietary CB2 Receptor Selective Cannabinoid can be a Candidate to Target the Trinity of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation in COVID-19 – 2021

 

 

BCP – Infection/COVID-19

  1. β-Caryophyllene, A Natural Dietary CB2 Receptor Selective Cannabinoid can be a Candidate to Target the Trinity of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation in COVID-19 – 2021

 

BCP – Inflammation/Neuroinflammation

  1. (−)-β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 Receptor-Selective Phytocannabinoid, Suppresses Motor Paralysis and Neuroinflammation in a Murine Model of Multiple Sclerosis – 2017
  2. β-Caryophyllene Ameliorates MSU-Induced Gouty Arthritis and Inflammation Through Inhibiting NLRP3 and NF-κB Signal Pathway – In Silico and In Vivo – 2021
  3. β-Caryophyllene, A Natural Dietary CB2 Receptor Selective Cannabinoid can be a Candidate to Target the Trinity of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation in COVID-19 – 2021
  4. Role of β-Caryophyllene in the Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Tagetes lucida Cav. Essential Oil – 2020
  5. β-Caryophyllene Reduces the Inflammatory Phenotype of Periodontal Cells by Targeting CB2 Receptors – 2020
  6. A systematic review on the neuroprotective perspectives of beta-caryophyllene – PubMed – 2018
  7. Protective Effects of (E)-β-Caryophyllene (BCP) in Chronic Inflammation – 2020
  8. Beta-caryophyllene protects against diet-induced dyslipidemia and vascular inflammation in rats Involvement of CB2 and PPAR-γ receptors – PubMed – 2019
  9. Myrtenal and β-caryophyllene oxide screened from Liquidambaris Fructus suppress NLRP3 inflammasome components in rheumatoid arthritis – 2021
  10. Protective Effects of (E)-β-Caryophyllene (BCP) in Chronic Inflammation – 2020
  11. The CB2 Agonist β-Caryophyllene in Male and Female Rats Exposed to a Model of Persistent Inflammatory Pain – 2020
  12. Cannabinoid CB2 Receptors in Neurodegenerative Proteinopathies- New Insights and Therapeutic Potential – 2022
  13. β-Caryophyllene inhibits high glucose-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and extracellular matrix accumulation in mesangial cells – PubMed-2020

 

BCP – Misc

  1. Acute administration of beta-caryophyllene prevents endocannabinoid system activation during transient common carotid artery occlusion and reperfusion – 2018
  2. Inhibitory Effects of β-Caryophyllene on Helicobacter pylori Infection In Vitro and In Vivo – 2020

 

BCP – Multiple Sclerosis

  1. (−)-β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 Receptor-Selective Phytocannabinoid, Suppresses Motor Paralysis and Neuroinflammation in a Murine Model of Multiple Sclerosis – 2017
  2. Traditional Uses of Cannabinoids and New Perspectives in the Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis – 2018
  3. Low Doses of β-Caryophyllene Reduced Clinical and Paraclinical Parameters of an Autoimmune Animal Model of Multiple Sclerosis – 2023

 

BCP – Nephropathy

  1. β-Caryophyllene inhibits high glucose-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and extracellular matrix accumulation in mesangial cells – PubMed-2020

BCP – Pain

  1. β‐caryophyllene and β‐caryophyllene oxide—natural compounds of anticancer and analgesic properties – 2016
  2. Antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice. – PubMed – NCBI
  3. The cannabinoid CB₂ receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic… – PubMed – NCBI – 2014
  4. The cannabinoid CB2 receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain – 2013
  5. Involvement of peripheral cannabinoid and opioid receptors in β-caryophyllene-induced antinociception – PubMed – 2013
  6. Cannabinoid CB2 Receptors Regulate Central Sensitization and Pain Responses Associated with Osteoarthritis of the Knee Joint
  7. Role of β-Caryophyllene in the Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Tagetes lucida Cav. Essential Oil – 2020
  8. A systematic review on the neuroprotective perspectives of beta-caryophyllene – PubMed – 2018
  9. Efficacy of Essential Oils in Pain – A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Evidence – 2021
  10. Observational clinical and nerve conduction study on effects of a nutraceutical combination on painful diabetic distal symmetric sensory-motor neuropathy in patients with diabetes- PubMed – 2018
  11. Cannabidiol and Beta-Caryophyllene in Combination: A Therapeutic Functional Interaction. 2022pdf
  12. Antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice – PubMed 2017
  13. The cannabinoid CB 2 receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain 2014
  14. The Endocannabinoid System, Cannabinoids, and Pain – 2013
  15. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2-Receptor-Selective Phytocannabinoid, Suppresses Mechanical Allodynia in a Mouse Model of Antiretroviral-Induced Neuropathic Pain – 2019
  16. β-Caryophyllene, a Natural Sesquiterpene, Attenuates Neuropathic Pain and Depressive-Like Behavior in Experimental Diabetic Mice – PubMed – 2019
  17. Cannabinoid Therapeutics in Chronic Neuropathic Pain – From Animal Research to Human Treatment – 2021
  18. Mechanisms of Transmission and Processing of Pain- A Narrative Review – 2023
  19. Evaluation by Survival Analysis of Cold Pain Tolerance in Patients with Fibromyalgia and Opioid Use – 2022
  20. Involvement of peripheral cannabinoid and opioid receptors in β-caryophyllene-induced antinociception – PubMed – 2013
  21. Cannabinoids, the endocannabinoid system and pain- a review of preclinical studies – 2021
  22. The Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Target in Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathic Pain- A Review – 2021

 

BCP – Products

  1. CarolinaCannabinoids.
  2. Nootropics Depot  250 mg capsules with 6% BCP  (equal to 15 mg BCP)
  3. Nootropics Depot powder with 6% BCP
  4. doTERRA Copaiba Essential Oil 120 mg Softgels (?? % BCP)
  5. Noxiall® (PEA 600 mg, Commiphora Myrrha 50 mg, Piper Nigrum 13.4 mg (10 mg β-cariofillene) and Rosmarinus Officinalis

 

Topical BCP/PEA – Tulla Botanicals, References

  1. Detailed Overview of Pharmacology of Active Ingredients in Tulla Botanicals Wellness Topicals 1.19.24

 

  1. A focused review on CB2 receptor-selective pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of β-caryophyllene, a dietary cannabinoid – 2021
  2. Beta Caryophyllene-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Topical Management of Skin Disorders – 2023
  3. Beta-caryophyllene as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and re-epithelialization activities in a rat skin wound excision model – 2022
  4. Beta-caryophyllene enhances wound healing through multiple routes – 2019
  5. Beta-caryophyllene-is-a-dietary-cannabinoid-2008
  6. Efficacy of a Combination of N-Palmitoylethanolamide, Beta-Caryophyllene, Carnosic Acid, and Myrrh Extract on Chronic Neuropathic Pain – A Preclinical Study – 2019
  7. Hemp Seed Oil in Association with β-Caryophyllene, Myrcene and Ginger Extract as a Nutraceutical Integration in Knee Osteoarthritis – 2022
  8. Improvement of Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction by β-Caryophyllene – A Focus on the Nervous System – 2021
  9. Multi-Target Effects of ß-Caryophyllene and Carnosic Acid at the Crossroads of Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Neurodegeneration- From Oxidative Stress to Microglia-Mediated Neuroinflammation – 2022
  10. Myrtenal and β-caryophyllene oxide screened from Liquidambaris Fructus suppress NLRP3 inflammasome components in rheumatoid arthritis – 2021
  11. Non-clinical toxicity of β-caryophyllene, a dietary cannabinoid Absence of adverse effects in female Swiss mice – PubMed – 2018
  12. Plant Natural Sources of the Endocannabinoid ( E)-β-Caryophyllene- A Systematic Quantitative Analysis of Published Literature – 2020
  13. Protective Effects of (E)-β-Caryophyllene (BCP) in Chronic Inflammation – 2020
  14. The CB2 Agonist β-Caryophyllene in Male and Female Rats Exposed to a Model of Persistent Inflammatory Pain – 2020
  15. The Endocannabinoid System, Cannabinoids, and Pain – 2013
  16. β-Caryophyllene inhibits high glucose-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and extracellular matrix accumulation in mesangial cells – PubMed-2020
  17. β-Caryophyllene-Loaded Microemulsion-Based Topical Hydrogel- A Promising Carrier to Enhance the Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Outcomes – 2023
  18. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice – PubMed – 2014
  19. (−)-β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 Receptor-Selective Phytocannabinoid, Suppresses Motor Paralysis and Neuroinflammation in a Murine Model of Multiple Sclerosis – 2017
  20. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2-Receptor-Selective Phytocannabinoid, Suppresses Mechanical Allodynia in a Mouse Model of Antiretroviral-Induced Neuropathic Pain – 2019
  21. β-Caryophyllene, A Natural Dietary CB2 Receptor Selective Cannabinoid can be a Candidate to Target the Trinity of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation in COVID-19 – 2021
  22. β-Caryophyllene, a Natural Sesquiterpene, Attenuates Neuropathic Pain and Depressive-Like Behavior in Experimental Diabetic Mice – PubMed – 2019

BCP – Product Formulations

  1. Preparation and Characterization of Liposomal β‐Caryophyllene (Rephyll) – 2020
  2. SPC Liposomes as Possible Delivery Systems for Improving Bioavailability of the Natural Sesquiterpene β-Caryophyllene – 2018
  3. Observational clinical and nerve conduction study on effects of a nutraceutical combination on painful diabetic distal symmetric sensory-motor neuropathy in patients with diabetes- PubMed – 2018

 

BCP – Safety

  1. Non-clinical toxicity of β-caryophyllene, a dietary cannabinoid Absence of adverse effects in female Swiss mice – PubMed – 2018

 

BCP – Sources

  1. Development of a Gas Chromatography Method for the Analysis of Copaiba Oil – 2017
  2. Fast-Acting_and_Receptor-Mediated_Regulation_of_Neuronal Signaling Pathways by Copaiba Essential Oil
  3. β-Caryophyllene, the major constituent of copaiba oil, reduces systemic inflammation and oxidative stress in arthritic rats – PubMed – 2018
  4. Role of β-Caryophyllene in the Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Tagetes lucida Cav. Essential Oil – 2020
  5. The anxiolytic-like effect of an essential oil derived from Spiranthera odoratissima A. St. Hil. leaves and its major component, β-caryophyllene, in male mice – 2012
  6. Plant Natural Sources of the Endocannabinoid ( E)-β-Caryophyllene- A Systematic Quantitative Analysis of Published Literature – 2020

 

BCP – Synergy

BCP – CBD

  1. Cannabidiol and Beta-Caryophyllene in Combination: A Therapeutic Functional Interaction. 2022.pdf
  2. Hemp Seed Oil in Association with β-Caryophyllene, Myrcene and Ginger Extract as a Nutraceutical Integration in Knee Osteoarthritis – 2022

 

 

BCP – Synergy: Curcumin & Echinacea

  1. Exploiting Curcumin Synergy With Natural Products Using Quantitative Analysis of Dose–Effect Relationships in an Experimental In Vitro Model of Osteoarthritis – 2019

BCP – Synergy: NSAIDs

  1. Dual-Acting Compounds Targeting Endocannabinoid and Endovanilloid Systems—A Novel Treatment Option for Chronic Pain Management – 2016
  2. Activation of Peripheral Cannabinoid Receptors Synergizes the Effect of Systemic Ibuprofen in a Pain Model in Rat – 2022
  3. Combination Drug Therapy for the Management of Chronic Neuropathic Pain – 2023
  4. Local interactions between anandamide, an endocannabinoid, and ibuprofen, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, in acute and inflammatory pain – PubMed – 2006
  5. Involvement of Spinal CB1 Cannabinoid Receptors on the Antinociceptive Effect of Celecoxib in Rat Formalin Test – 2016

 

BCP – Synergy: Opioids

  1. Synergistic attenuation of chronic pain using mu opioid and cannabinoid receptor 2 agonists – 2016
  2. Effect of Pharmacological Modulation of the Endocannabinoid System on Opiate Withdrawal: A Review of the Preclinical Animal Literature – 2016

 

BCP – Synergy: Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA)

  1. Noxiall® (PEA 600 mg, Commiphora Myrrha 50 mg, Piper Nigrum 13.4 mg (10 mg β-cariofillene) and Rosmarinus Officinalis
  2. Efficacy of a Combination of N-Palmitoylethanolamide, Beta-Caryophyllene, Carnosic Acid, and Myrrh Extract on Chronic Neuropathic Pain – A Preclinical Study – 2019
  3. Short-term efficacy of a fixed association of Palmitoylethanolamide and other phytochemicals as add-on therapy in the management of chronic pain in elderly patients – 2018
  4. The Endocannabinoid System and PPARs – Focus on Their Signalling Crosstalk, Action and Transcriptional Regulation – 2021
  5. Observational clinical and nerve conduction study on effects of a nutraceutical combination on painful diabetic distal symmetric sensory-motor neuropathy in patients with diabetes- PubMed – 2018
  6. A Personal Retrospective: Elevating Anandamide (AEA) by Targeting Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase (FAAH) and the Fatty Acid Binding Proteins (FABPs) – 2016

 

BCP – Topical

  1. NON-CANNABIS THERAPY – Cannabinoid Therapy Without Using Cannabis: Direct Effects™ Topical β-Caryophyllene
  2. Beta-caryophyllene enhances wound healing through multiple routes – 2019
  3. The fragrance chemical beta-caryophyllene-air oxidation and skin sensitization – PubMed – 2005
  4. Expression of the Endocannabinoid Receptors in Human Fascial Tissue – 2016
  5. Effects of a massage-like essential oil application procedure using Copaiba T and Deep Blue oils in individuals with hand arthritis – 2018
  6. Effects of a massage-like essential oil application procedure using Copaiba T and Deep Blue oils in individuals with hand arthritis – 2018
  7. The cannabinoid CB 2 receptor-selective phytocannabinoid beta-caryophyllene exerts analgesic effects in mouse models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain 2014
  8. Cannabidiol and Beta-Caryophyllene in Combination: A Therapeutic Functional Interaction. 2022.pdf
  9. Antiallodynic effect of β-caryophyllene on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy in mice – PubMed 2017
  10. The Skin and Natural Cannabinoids–Topical and Transdermal Applications – 2023
  11. Topical cannabidiol (CBD) in skin pathology – A comprehensive review and prospects for new therapeutic opportunities – 2022
  12. Beta-caryophyllene as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and re-epithelialization activities in a rat skin wound excision model – 2022
  13. Beta-caryophyllene enhances wound healing through multiple routes – 2019
  14. β-Caryophyllene-Loaded Microemulsion-Based Topical Hydrogel- A Promising Carrier to Enhance the Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Outcomes – 2023

 

 

BCP – Toxicity

  1. The fragrance chemical beta-caryophyllene-air oxidation and skin sensitization – PubMed – 2005
  2. Toxicological Evaluation of β-Caryophyllene Oil: Subchronic Toxicity in Rats. – PubMed – NCBI 2016

 

BCP – Wound Healing

  1. Beta-caryophyllene enhances wound healing through multiple routes – 2019
  2. Beta-caryophyllene as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and re-epithelialization activities in a rat skin wound excision mode – 2022
  3. Cannabinoid Signaling in the Skin – Therapeutic Potential of the “C(ut)annabinoid” System – 2019

 

Terpenes

Terpenes – Overviews

  1. Therapeutic and Medicinal Uses of Terpenes – 2019
  2. Terpenes:Terpenoids in Cannabis – Are They Important? – 2020
  3. Advances in Pharmacological Activities of Terpenoids – 2020
  4. Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant – 2020
  5. The Cannabis Terpenes – 2020
  6. The “Entourage Effect” – Terpenes Coupled with Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – 2020
  7. Cannabis Essential Oil – A Preliminary Study for the Evaluation of the Brain Effects – 2018
  8. A Systematic Review of Essential Oils and the Endocannabinoid System – A Connection Worthy of Further Exploration – 2020
  9. Efficacy of Essential Oils in Pain – A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Preclinical Evidence – 2021
  10. The Effects of Essential Oils and Terpenes in Relation to Their Routes of Intake and Application – 2020

 

Terpenes – Aromatherapy

  1. Aromatherapy and Aromatic Plants for the Treatment of Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia in Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease Clinical Evidence and Possible Mechanisms – 2017
  2. Corrigendum – A question of scent – lavender aroma promotes interpersonal trust -2015
  3. Odors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleepOdors enhance slow-wave activity in non-rapid eye movement sleep
  4. Essential Oils and Animals – Which Essential Oils Are Toxic to Pets?
  5. Essential Oils and Pets
  6. Herbs and Their Uses for Animals – Patchouli and Pets
  7. Reactivating memories during sleep by odors – odor specificity and associated changes in sleep oscillations – 2014
  8. Increasing Explicit Sequence Knowledge by Odor Cueing during Sleep in Men but not Women – 2016
  9. Effects of odorant administration on objective and subjective measures of sleep quality, post-sleep mood and alertness, and cognitive performance – 2003
  10. An Olfactory Stimulus Modifies Nighttime Sleep in Young Men and Women – 2005
  11. Massage with or without aromatherapy for symptom relief in people with cancer. – PubMed – NCBI
  12. Aromatherapy hand massage for older adults with chronic pain living in long-term care. – PubMed – NCBI
  13. A Systematic Review of Essential Oils and the Endocannabinoid System – A Connection Worthy of Further Exploration – 2020
  14. Human olfactory receptors – novel cellular functions outside of the nose,” – 2017
  15. The diversified function and potential therapy of ectopic olfactory receptors in non-olfactory tissues – PubMed – 2017
  16. How does your kidney smell? Emerging roles for olfactory receptors in renal function,” – 2017
  17. The Effects of Essential Oils and Terpenes in Relation to Their Routes of Intake and Application – 2020

 

Terpenes – CB2 Receptor

  1. Cannabinoid-based therapy as a future for joint degeneration. Focus on the role of CB2 receptor in the arthritis progression and pain – an updated review – 2021
  2. β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice – 2014
  3. The CB2 receptor and its role as a regulator of inflammation – 2016
  4. Cannabinoid CB2 Receptors Regulate Central Sensitization and Pain Responses Associated with Osteoarthritis of the Knee Joint
  5. Activation of Peripheral Cannabinoid Receptors Synergizes the Effect of Systemic Ibuprofen in a Pain Model in Rat – 2022
  6. Involvement of Spinal CB1 Cannabinoid Receptors on the Antinociceptive Effect of Celecoxib in Rat Formalin Test – 2016

 

Terpenes – Synergy with Cannabinoids:

  1. Taming THC – potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects – 2011
  2. A tale of two cannabinoids: the therapeutic rationale for combining tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol. – PubMed – NCBI
  3. Entourage Effect 2.0
  4. Cannabis and the Anxiety of Fragmentation—A Systems Approach for Finding an Anxiolytic Cannabis Chemotype – 2018
  5. Terpenoids and Phytocannabinoids Co-Produced in Cannabis Sativa Strains Show Specific Interaction for Cell Cytotoxic Activity – 2019
  6. Absence of Entourage – Terpenoids Commonly Found in Cannabis sativa Do Not Modulate the Functional Activity of Δ9-THC at Human CB1 and CB2 Receptors – 2019
  7. Terpenoids From Cannabis Do Not Mediate an Entourage Effect by Acting at Cannabinoid Receptors – 2020
  8. The “Entourage Effect” – Terpenes Coupled with Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Mood Disorders and Anxiety Disorders – 2020

 

Terpenes – Marijuana Strains

  1. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
  2. Terpenoid Chemoprofiles Distinguish Drug-type Cannabis sativa L. Cultivars in Nevada – 2018
  3. Terpenoids and Phytocannabinoids Co-Produced in Cannabis Sativa Strains Show Specific Interaction for Cell Cytotoxic Activity – 2019
  4. Identification of Terpenoid Chemotypes Among High (−)-trans-Δ9- Tetrahydrocannabinol-Producing Cannabis sativa L. Cultivars 0 2017
  5. The Cannabinoid Content of Legal Cannabis in Washington State Varies Systematically Across Testing Facilities and Popular Consumer Products – 2018

 

 

Terpenes – Bioavailability

  1. Bioavailability and Pharmacokinetics of Natural Volatile Terpenes in Animals and Humans – 2000
  2. Bioavailability of Bioactive Compounds
  3. SPC Liposomes as Possible Delivery Systems for Improving Bioavailability of the Natural Sesquiterpene β-Caryophyllene – 2018

Terpenes – Pain:

  1. Analgesic-like Activity of Essential Oils Constituents – 2011
  2. Analgesic-Like Activity of Essential Oil Constituents – An Update – 2017
  3. Medicinal Plants of the Family Lamiaceae in Pain Therapy – A Review – 2018
  4. Analgesic Potential of Essential Oils – 2016
  5. Medicinal Plants of the Family Lamiaceae in Pain Therapy – A Review – 2018
  6. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
  7. Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant – 2020
  8.  The Molecular Mechanisms That Underpin the Biological Benefits of Full-Spectrum Cannabis Extract in the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain and Inflammation – PubMed – 2020
  9. Cannabis-based medicines and the perioperative physician – 2019
  10. Cannabis‐based medicines for chronic neuropathic pain in adults – 2018
  11. Medicinal Properties of Cannabinoids, Terpenes, and Flavonoids in Cannabis, and Benefits in Migraine, Headache, and Pain – An Update on Current Evidence and Cannabis Science – 2018
  12. Role of Cannabinoids and Terpenes in Cannabis-Mediated Analgesia in Rats – PubMed – 2019
  13. Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice – 2018
  14. Analgesic Potential of Essential Oils – 2016
  15. Analgesic-Like Activity of Essential Oil Constituents – An Update – 2017

 

 

Terpenes – Inflammation:

  1. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015 
  2. Cannabis sativa L. and Nonpsychoactive Cannabinoids – Their Chemistry and Role against Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Cancer – 2018
  3. Patterns of medicinal cannabis use, strain analysis, and substitution effect among patients with migraine, headache, arthritis, and chronic pain in a medicinal cannabis cohort – 2018
  4. Therapeutic Potential of Volatile Terpenes and Terpenoids from Forests for Inflammatory Diseases – 2020
  5.  The Molecular Mechanisms That Underpin the Biological Benefits of Full-Spectrum Cannabis Extract in the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain and Inflammation – PubMed – 2020
  6. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis. – 2015
  7. Cannabis, Cannabinoids, and the Endocannabinoid System—Is there Therapeutic Potential for Inflammatory Bowel Disease? – 2019
  8. Therapeutic Applications of Terpenes on Inflammatory Diseases – 2021
  9. Protective Effects of (E)-β-Caryophyllene (BCP) in Chronic Inflammation – 2020

 

Terpenes – Wound Healing

  1. Beta-caryophyllene enhances wound healing through multiple routes – 2019

 

 

 Individual Sources of Terpenes

Terpenes – Bergamot

  1. The Anxiolytic Effect of Aromatherapy on Patients Awaiting Ambulatory Surgery – A Randomized Controlled Trial – 2013
  2. Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice – 2018
  3. Anxiolytic-Like Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil Are Insensitive to Flumazenil in Rats – 2019
  4. Bergamot – Natural Medicines – Professional.pdf
  5. Citrus bergamia essential oil – from basic research to clinical application – 2015
  6. Role of 5-HT1A Receptor in the Anxiolytic-Relaxant Effects of Bergamot Essential Oil in Rodent – 2020 Neuropharmacological Properties of the Essential Oil of Bergamot for the Clinical Management of Pain-Related BPSDs – PubMed – 2019
  7. Possible involvement of the peripheral Mu-opioid system in antinociception induced by bergamot essential oil to allodynia after peripheral nerve injury – PubMed – 2018
  8. Peripherally injected linalool and bergamot essential oil attenuate mechanical allodynia via inhibiting spinal ERK phosphorylation – PubMed – 2013
  9. Neuropharmacology of the essential oil of bergamot – PubMed – 2010
  10. Effect of Harvesting Time on Volatile Compounds Composition of Bergamot (Citrus × Bergamia) Essential Oil – 2019
  11. Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Essential Oils from Peels of Three Citrus Species – 2020
  12. Chemical_Composition_of_Bergamot_Citrus_Bergamia_Risso_Essential_Oil_Obtained_by_Hydrodistillation – 2010
  13. Cannabinoid Signaling in the Skin – Therapeutic Potential of the “C(ut)annabinoid” System – 2019
  14. Rational Basis for the Use of Bergamot Essential Oil in Complementary Medicine to Treat Chronic Pain – PubMed – 2016

 

 

 

 

 

Emphasis on Education

 

Accurate Clinic promotes patient education as the foundation of it’s medical care. In Dr. Ehlenberger’s integrative approach to patient care, including conventional and complementary and alternative medical (CAM) treatments, he may encourage or provide advice about the use of supplements. However, the specifics of choice of supplement, dosing and duration of treatment should be individualized through discussion with Dr. Ehlenberger. The following information and reference articles are presented to provide the reader with some of the latest research to facilitate evidence-based, informed decisions regarding the use of conventional as well as CAM treatments.

 

For medical-legal reasons, access to these links is limited to patients enrolled in an Accurate Clinic medical program.

 

Should you wish more information regarding any of the subjects listed – or not listed –  here, please contact Dr. Ehlenberger. He has literally thousands of published articles to share on hundreds of topics associated with pain management, weight loss, nutrition, addiction recovery and emergency medicine. It would take years for you to read them, as it did him.

 

For more information, please contact Accurate Clinic.

 

Supplements recommended by Dr. Ehlenberger may be purchased commercially online or at Accurate Clinic.

Please read about our statement regarding the sale of products recommended by Dr. Ehlenberger.

Accurate Supplement Prices